See the safety of gis. Software for GIS: current software for GIS

, economy, defense.

Territorial divisions are divided into global GIS (global GIS), subcontinental GIS, national GIS, which often mark the status of sovereign, regional GIS (regional GIS), subregional GIS and local, or national GIS (local GIS).

GIS are introduced into the subject area of ​​information modeling, for example, municipal GIS, or municipal GIS, MGIS (urban GIS), environmental GIS (environmental GIS) Template: Nobr ; among them, especially the name, as it was especially wide, was taken away by the land information systems. The problematic orientation of the GIS is characterized by rozv'yazuvannym nіy zavdannya (scientific and applied), including the inventory of resources (zocrema cadastre), analysis, assessment, monitoring, management and planning, support decision. Integration GIS, IGIS (integrated GIS, IGIS) functionality GIS and digital image processing systems (data remote sensing) in a single integrated medium.

Poly-scale, or scale-independent GIS (multiscale GIS) is based on multiple, or multi-scale manifestations of space objects (multiple representation, multiscale representation), providing graphic or cartographic data on any of the other scales on the basis of a single set. Space-temporal GIS (spatio-temporal GIS) operates with space-hour tributes. Realіzatsіya geoіnformatsіynih proektіv (GIS project), stvorennya GІS have wide znachennі words vklyuchaє Etap: peredproektnih doslіdzhen (feasibility study), in addition chislі vivchennya vimog koristuvacha (user requirements) that funktsіonalnih mozhlivostey vikoristovuvanih software zasobіv GІS, tehnіko-ekonomіchne obґruntuvannya, otsіnku spіvvіdnoshennya "vitrate / surplus" (costs / benefits); system design of GIS (GIS designing), including the stage of a pilot project (pilot-project), development of GIS (GIS development); її testing on a small territorial fragment, or a test area (test area), prototyping, or creating a last segment, or a prototype; GIS wiki (GIS implementation); exploitation and vikoristannya. Scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and development of GIS are developed by geoinformatics.

Head of GIS

• Data entry. For the transcription in the GIS, the data has been converted to an appropriate digital format (digitized). In today's GIS, this process can be automated due to the lack of scanner technology, or, for a small fee, data can be introduced with the help of a digitizer.
• Manipulating danim (for example, scaling).
• Data management. In small projects, geographic information can be saved from looking at large files, and with more information and an increase in the number of files for saving, structuring and managing data, the DBMS will be blocked.
• Request that analysis of data - otrimannya vіdpovіdey on raznі nіtnі (for example, who is the manager of this land plot? On yakіy vіdstanі one type of one roztashovanі tsі ob'єkti? yalinovymi foxes - How vpline on the road to transport the life of a new road?).
• Visualization of data. For example, the presentation of data as a card and graphic.

Possibility of GIS

GIS include the capabilities of a DBMS, editors of raster and vector graphics and analytical tools and work in cartography, geology, meteorology, land management, ecology, municipal government, transport, economics, defense. GIS allow you to deal with a wide range of tasks - whether it is the analysis of such global problems as overpopulation, zabrudnennya territory, stagnation of forest lands, natural disasters, or the emergence of private villages, such as searching for the best route between points, finding the best address for a new office, asking for an laying the pipeline of the bіlya, various municipal works.

GIS-system allows:

• designate how objects are located on a given territory;
• determine the location of the object's expansion (space analysis);
• give an analysis of the area of ​​distribution under the territory of such a phenomenon (for example, the area of ​​settlement);
• designate hours on the square);
• zmodelyuvaty, scho become when changing roztashuvannya ob'ektiv (for example, to add a new road).

GIS classification

For territorial protection:

• global GIS;
• subcontinental GIS;
• national GIS;
• regional hot water supply;
• subregional GIS;
• local chi mіstsevі GIS.

For equal management:

• federal GIS;
• regional hot water supply;
• municipal GIS;
• corporate GIS.

For functionality:

• fully functional;
• GIS for data review;
• GIS for data entry;
• specialization of GIS.

By subject gallery:

• cartographic;
• geological;
• mіskі chi municipal gіs;
• nature conservation GIS too.

As far as the functionality of the GIS system is possible, and the feasibility of digital image processing, such systems are called GIS integration (IGIS). Multi-scale, or scale-independent GIC foundations on multiple or multi-scale manifestations of space objects, without graphic or cartographic implementation of data on any of the other equal scale ranges based on a single set of data with the largest space space. Prostorovo-hours GIS operate with space-hours tributes.

Areas of GIS congestion

• Management of land resources, land cadastre. In order to solve the problems that can create a spacious binding, I began to create a GIS. Typical tasks - the storage of cadastres, classification maps, designation of the area of ​​\u200b\u200bdilyanok and cordons between them just.
• Inventory, appearance, planning of placement of objects of divided production infrastructure and their management. For example, oil and gas companies, or companies that manage the energy system, the system of gas stations, stores, etc.
• Design, engineering, planning in everyday life, architecture. Thus, GIS allow you to build a new complex for the development of the territory, optimize the infrastructure of the area, which will be required, the amount of equipment, forces and supplies.
• Thematic cartography.
• Management of land, support and water transport. GIS allows you to change the task of managing objects that are collapsing, for the sake of understanding the given system of water between them and non-destructive objects. At some point, you can find out, where you can find transport zasib, rozrohuvat zavantazhennya, the optimal trajectory of traffic, the hour will arrive soon.
• Management of natural resources, environmental activities and ecology. GIS helps to design a flow mill and stocks of resources that are guarded, model the process in the natural environment, improve environmental monitoring of the environment.
• Geology, mineral and syrovin resources, garnished footwear industry. GIS zdіysnyuє razrokhunki stocks of brown copalins for the results of tests (exploration of drilling, sample pitting) for a particular model of the process of the adoption of the genera.
• Supervisory situations. For Relief GІS held prognozuvannya Nadzvychaina sytuatsia situatsіy (pozhezh, poveney, zemletrusіv, selіv, uraganіv) rozrahunok stage potentsіynoї nebezpeki that of acceptance rіshen about nadannya Relief, rozrahunok neobhіdnoї kіlkostі forces that zasobіv for lіkvіdatsії Nadzvychaina sytuatsia situatsіy, rozrahunok optimally marshrutіv Ruhu to Georeferencing Lehigh otsіnka zavdanih zbitkіv.
• Viyskova on the right. The choice of a wide number of specific zavdans, connected with rozrahunk visibility zones, optimal routes for movement along the intersection of the city with the protection of the environment.
• Silsk state. Forecasting the yield and increasing the viability of agricultural products, optimizing and transporting and slaughtering.

Silsk state

Before the cob of the dermal strong season, the farmers are guilty of celebrating the 50 most important decisions: what to grow, if so, what to victoriously do good. Whether one of them can be recognized by the yield and the final result. For us, the farmers took such a decision, basing on the past, the tradition of bringing roses from sugars and other well-known ones. Today, the agricultural state has generated more data from a geographic link, a lower number of other galuzes. Data is available from various sources: telemetry machines, meteorological stations, ground sensors, ground detection, ground surveillance, satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles. For the help of GIS, agricultural companies can collect, process and analyze data to maximize resources, monitor savings and increase yields.

Transportation and logistics

The movement of people in those speeches is often associated with great logistical difficulties. Eviyat Sobii L_Karnya, Yaka wants to Nadatya's Satragging High-Retaine Route at Home, Aboy Mishtsev Self-Deadvalus, I want an organіzouvati Optimalnі router Tom Schwidkіsen Tram, Alboy, I want to deliver your product , as a plan for the laying of pipelines. In the case of skin disorders, for the adoption of a business decision on the basis of new information, the necessary analysis of data about the medical condition.

Energy

In rozvіdtsі reserves energonosіїv zaznchennya ekonomіchnoї dotsіlnostі vidobotku vіy chi іnshіy mіstsevostі vikoristovuyutsya sputnikі fotografії, geologic maps zemlі і remote probing plastіv. Energetichnі kompanії vikoristovuyut velichezny obsyag geografіchnih danih, oskіlki promislovі sensor infections vstanovlyuyutsya skrіz:.. Lazernі sensors lіtakah, sensors poverhnі zemlі at burіnnі sverdlovin, monіtori truboprovodіv i t d Kartografuvannya that prostorovy analіz give neobhіdnі knowledge for of acceptance rіshen of dotrimannyam vimog regulyatorіv viborі Maidanchiks and localization of resources.

Retail trade

At the same time, as smart phones and attachments are becoming more and more popular, traditional sellers can exploit geospatial technology to capture a larger picture of shopping behavior in the past and present. That is why the geospace data is not taken until the date of the roztashuvannya, but rather due to the data provisions, such as the demographic characteristics of the buyers or information about those, where people spend the most time in the store. All data can be selected when choosing a place for the store, assigned to a set of goods and their placement at the same time.

Defense and intelligence

Geospatial technology has changed the military and development operations in any part of the world, where the military contingents are located. Command, analysts and other fahivtsi will require accurate data from the GIS for the completion of their assignments. GIS assists in assessing the situation (creating new visual data of tactical information), conducting operations on land (showing intelligence, elevation, routes, growing curve, objects of populated weather), at rep (transmitting data on the ground); that postachannya) , give tsilevkazivka) and on the sea (showing the currents, the height of the wind, tide that weather).

federal order

Timely, that exact geospace exploration is more important for decision making by federal agencies, as it is awarded for protection and security, infrastructure, resource management, and that quality of life. The ICE allows organizing the protection and security with operational support, coordinating defense, responding to natural disasters, various law enforcement agencies, national security agencies and emergency services. When it comes to infrastructure, GIS supplements it with resources and assets recognized for highways, ports, public transport and airports. Federal agencies also win GIS for a brief overview of relevant and historical data, necessary for the management of the strong and the forest state, the handicraft industry, water and other natural resources.

Musical organs of power

Mistsevy organs of the day accept decisions, yakі without intermediary chіpаyut muskantsіv i zhіzhdzhih. Starting from the repair of roads and utility services and completing the assessment of land varity and development of the territory - a summary of cartographic addenda to be made for analysis and interpretation of data from the GIS. In addition, the population and landscape of the towns and villages can change a lot in a short hour. Ti-Зміна тобоваться TO CIKH ZMYN TAKE TO ORDER TO THE RIVEN INTERNERAVYUVANNY, ON THE CLEAN WHIN WHOY, MISSETSIVI CUSTAY VIRYS WIDE WILLED EXCHANT TEKHNOLOGIY GIS FOR SPEED AVAILAGE FOR RUBER HUMANT TA RUNMІ MOVODS, Yakіsti Dovkіlla, sewn of Zakhvoryan, rosepod_l water supply and sewerage), for the management of parks and other communal plots of land, as well as for permission to set up camping sites, for watering, and fishing, too.

GIS structure

The GIS system includes five key warehouses:

• hardware. This is the computer on which the GIS is running. In Denmark, HIS is practiced on different types of computer platforms from centralized servers to up to 100 or more connected by a network of desktop computers;
• software security. Use functions and tools necessary for the collection, analysis and visualization of geographic information. To such software products lie: tools for the introduction and operation of geographic information; database management system (DBMS or DBMS); tools for stimulating open spaces, analysis and visualization;
• data. Data about the expanse of the camp (geographical data) and tabular data related to them can be collected and prepared by the koristuvach himself, or you can bathe with post-employees on a commercial basis. In the process of managing space data GIS integrating space data with other types and data files, as well as DBMS victories, so that a lot of organizations can be put in order to arrange and maintain data available in their order data;
• vikonavtsi. Koristuvachami GІS can be like technical fahіvtsі, like rozroblyayat and improve the system, so і zvichaynі spіvrobіtniki, yakіm ГІС dopomogaє virіshuvati virіshuvati schodennі solve that problem;
• methods.

History of GIS

Pioneer period (late 1950s - early 1970s)

Doslіdzhennya principial possibilites, near-cordon galleys of knowledge and technologies, on the basis of empirical evidence, the first great projects and theoretical work.

• The emergence of electronic counting machines (EOM) in the 50s.
• Appearance of digital, plotters, graphic displays and other peripheral devices in the 60s.
• Creation of software algorithms and procedures for graphic display of information on displays and for auxiliary plotters.
• Creation of formal methods of spatial analysis.
• Creation of software tools for maintaining data bases.

The period of state initiatives (after 1970s - after 1980s)

The Sovereign support of the GIS stimulated the development of experimental work in the galusia of the GIS, based on the best databases on street fences:

• Automated navigation systems.
• The systems of vivezennya mіskikh vіdkhoіv i smіttya.
• Rukh transport zasobіv have nadzvychaynykh situatsiyakh too.

Period of commercial development (early 1980-i - present hour)

Wide rinok rіznomanіtnih software zasobіv, rozvitok nastіlnih GІS, rozshirennya spherical їh zastosuvannya for rakhunok іntegratsії of bases neprostorovih danih appeared merezhevih dodatkіv appeared znachnoї kіlkostі neprofesіynih koristuvachіv, the system sets scho pіdtrimuyut іndivіdualnі danih on okremih komp'yuterah, vіdkrivayut Way system scho support corporate and rozpodіlenі bases of geodata.

Koristuvalnytsky period (late 1980s - present hour)

Pіdvischena konkurentsіya Sered komertsіynih virobnikіv geoіnformatsіynih tehnologіy poslug daє perevagi koristuvacham GІS, dostupnіst i "vіdkritіst" software zasobіv dozvolyaє vikoristovuvati i navіt modifіkuvati warming up, there were "klubіv" telekonferentsіy, teritorіalno roz'єdnanih, ale pov'yazanih єdinoyu Topics koristuvalnitskih group, zrosla cob molding of light geoinformation infrastructure

GIS structure

1. Data (space data):
   • positional (geographical): location of the object on the earth's surface.
   • non-positional (attributive): descriptive.
2. Hardware security (EOM, merezhi, accumulators, scanner, digitizer, etc.).
3. Software security (PS).
4. Technologies (methods, order of things).

13.1. CONCEPTS ABOUT GEOINFORMATION SYSTEMS

Naprikintsi XX cent. The beginning of active automation and computerization of cartography has become the master and organizer of the majestic arrays of information about the most important aspects of the foundation, interaction and functioning of nature and sustainability. Informatization has penetrated all spheres of science and practice - from school education to high state policy.
The sciences about the Earth on the basis of information technologies have created geographic information systems (GIS) - special systems for collecting, collecting, analyzing and graphical visualization of space data and providing them with information about the necessary objects.
Extensive data (geographical data, geodata) - data about the expanse of objects and their sets. Extensive data to form the basis of information security of geoinformation systems. The collection of spacious data, records (savings) of this or that rank, is called spacious data base.
One of the main functions of GIS is the creation of a variety of computer (electronic) maps, atlases and other cartographic creations.
Geoinformation technologies with great success zastosovuyut at the galleys:

• vidobutka of brown copalins - monitoring of catering enterprises, control over the vidobutku of brown copalins;
• industrial planning - designing enterprises, conducting surveys, auditing and monitoring;
• budіvelnoї promislovostі - designing communications;
• economics - expert assessments, marketing planning, management;
• administrative management - appearance of administrative order, informational security of election campaigns, consulting, territory management;
• ecology - the task of executing the task of overarching situations, environmental monitoring;
• Internet - Internet servers, search for localization and routing.

It is accepted to distinguish between such territorial regions of the GIS: global, national, regional, municipal and local.
GIS is updated on the problem orientation (topics). Specialized land information systems (ЗІС), cadastral (КІС), ecological (ЕГІС), military, maritime and other systems have been created. One of the widest in geography is GIS of the resource type. The stench is created on the basis of great and varied information arrays according to the subject matter and is recognized for inventory, assessment, conservation and rational selection of resources, forecasting the results of their exploitation.

13.2. PIDSYSTEM GIS

Structure GIS sound represent how dialed information balloons (Fig. 13.1). For example, the base ball is to collect data about the relief, then go to the balls of hydrography, road barriers, settlements, soils, dewy slopes, widening of straying rivers, etc. Mentally, these balls can be seen at the sight of the “bookcase”, on the skin of the police, a card is taken out of digital information with singing topics.

Mal. 13.1. The principle of spreading information versions in geographic information systems

At the process of executing the tasks set, the balls are analyzed as much as possible in different combinations, they are mutually overlaid (overlay) and regionalized, the correlations are sorted out. Let's say, for the data about the elections, one can induce the formation of "the turnout of the voters how to take part in the elections" and "the results of the vote about the singing party". Analyzing the circles, you can sprobit visnovki about the work of agitators in the districts.

Mal. 13.2. The results of choosing a choice

When the GIS is created, the head of the head is given to the choice of geographical foundation і basemap , as to serve as a framework for offensive binding, summing up and coordinating all the data that need to reach the GIS, for the mutual benefit of information balls and further analysis from the overlay. Depending on the subject and problem orientation of the GIS as a basic one, you can choose:

• maps of the administrative-territorial subdivision;
• topographic and global geographic maps;
• cadastral maps and plans;
• photographs and photographic portraits of the masses;
• landscape maps;
• maps of natural areas and schemes of natural contours;
• maps of vikoristannya lands.

Possible and combinations of designation bases, for example, landscape cards with topographic or photographic cards with cards of victorious lands, too. For a specific skin type, the selection and preparation of the base map (for example, the development of the application of additional information) becomes the central task of the geographic and cartographic priming of the GIC.
Sercevin every GIS warehouse automated cartographic system (AKS) - a set of accessories and software tools that ensure the creation of this variety of cards. ACS is composed of low subsystems, the most important of all subsystems introduction, processingі visnovka information(Fig. 13.3).
Subsystem of input of information - tse extension for transformation of space information into digital form and input into the computer's memory or database. For digitization, digital digital attachments (digitizers) and scanners are installed. For the help of digital cameras, on the external map, they simply outline the contours and other signs, and for the riddle about the computer, when you need to find the current coordinates of these contours and lines in the digital form. The process of quilting itself is done by the operator manually, for which reason the laboriousness of the work is great, and the guilt of the quilting is done for the hour of drawing the lines. Scanners automatically read information sequentially across the entire field of the card, row by row. The card itself is placed on the tablet chi drum. The scanning process is exactly the same, but it is also possible to add to the digitization (recognition) of the digitized elements: rivers, roads, and other contours too. These are the characteristics of the objects that are digitized, as well as the statistical data to be entered from the computer keyboard. All digital information goes to databases.

Mal. 13.3. GIS structure.

bazi danih - ordering arrays of data, be it those (themes), presented in digital form, for example, databases of data about the relief, settlements, bases of geological and environmental information. Formation of databases, access to that robot with them is secured by the database management system (DBMS), as it allows you to know the necessary information and carry out further processing. As a basis for these distributions on a number of computers (for example, in different installations or in different places and countries), then they are called different databases . Tse sruchno, shards of skin organization form their array, quilting yoga and pіdtremuє less on equal terms. The totality of databases and the ability to manage them are approved data banks . Distribute bases and banks of data computer merezha , and access to them (to ask, search, read, update) is under the same control.
Information processing subsystem is composed of the computer itself, the system of care and software. Hundreds of various specialized programs (software packages) have been created, which allow you to choose the required projection, adopt generalization and image methods, create maps, combine them one by one, visualize and display them on another. Building software systems and more folding work: analyze the territory, decode images and classify objects that are mapped, model the process, set, evaluate alternative options and choose the optimal path of the cherry. And modern intellectual programs model the processes of human thought.
Most of the subsystems for processing information are used in the dialog (interactive) mode, for an hour or so without intermediary two-way exchange of information between a cartographer and a computer.
subsystem of vision (Visual) information - a set of extensions for visualization of generalized information in cartographic form. Screens (displays), other accessories (printers) of various designs, armchair machines (plotters) and others. With help, it’s easy to show the results of mapping and variant solutions in your form, as it’s convenient for a koristuvach. If you can find not only a map, but also texts, graphics, three-dimensional models, tables, prote, you can find more information about it, then most of it is given in a cartographic form, the most obvious one is easily accessible for inspection.
All subsystems, which are included in automatic cartographic systems, are also included in the GIS. To the warehouse of the cartographic GIS of the general recognition includes card viewing subsystem , as it allows you to prepare different forms and different circulations of cards. Even though the circulation is not large, it should be heard when vikonannі scientific achievements, vikoristovuyut on the cartographic viewing system.
GIS, oriented to the processing of aerospace information, includes a specialized image processing subsystem. In this way, the software allows you to perform different operations with signs: carry out their correction, transformation, improvement, automatic recognition, decryption, classification and other.
A special subsystem of highly developed GIS can become a knowledge base, tobto. the collection of formalized knowledge, logical rules and programmatic tools for the accomplishment of tasks of the singing type (for example, for the conduct of cordons and regionalization of the territory). Basic knowledge helps diagnose geosystems, suggest options for solving problematic situations, and predict developments. It is possible to understand that knowledge bases implement the principles of functioning of piece intelligence.

13.3. GEOINFORMATION - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, VIROBNITSTVO

Geoinformatics іsnuє in three roles as science, technics and virobnitstvo, and it is necessary to achieve a typical situation in the minds of scientific and technical progress, which brings science and virobnitstvo closer. This trinity is one of the factors that brings cartography and geoinformatics closer.
Geoinformatics as a scientific discipline develops natural and social and economic geosystems with the help of computer modeling based on data bases and knowledge bases.
Together with cartography and other sciences about the Earth, geoinformatics continues the processes of the phenomena that are found in geosystems, but it also works for it with its own methods and methods. Head of them є computer simulation і geoinformation cartography .
The main goals of geoinformatics as a science are the management of geosystems in a wide understanding, including inventory, assessment, forecasting, and optimization. For cartography, especially important are the foundations of geoinformatics, a complex approach to the phenomena that appear, that її problematic orientation. The structure of geoinformatics is divided into such divisions as the theory of geosystem modeling, methods of spatial analysis and applied geoinformatics.
On the other hand, geoinformatics is the technology of choosing, saving, transforming, expanding and expanding space-coordinating data. GIS-technologies ensure the analysis of geoinformation and make decisions.
Zreshtoyu, geoinformatics as a manufacturing (geoinformation industry) - the development of equipment, the creation of commercial software products and GIS-shells, databases, control systems, computer systems. The formation of GIS-infrastructure and marketing organization are close to the sphere.
Cartography and geoinformatics are directly related to each other. The stench is united organizationally, the oscalls of the state cartographic services and private firms are engaged in geoinformation activities at the same time. Forming a special feature directly of the geoinformation-cartographic illumination.
The unity of two galleries of science and technology is determined by such factors:
♦ transcendental geographic and thematic maps - wildly wild information about nature, government, social sphere, ecological situation;
♦ systems of coordinates and drawing, accepted in cartography, є the basis for the geographical localization of all data in GIS;
♦ maps - the main reason for interpreting and organizing remote sensing data and whether there is any other information that can be found, processed and collected in the GIS;
♦ geoinformation technologies, which are developed for the development of space-time structure, links and dynamics of geosystems, which are based on the methods of cartographic analysis and mathematical-cartographic modeling;
♦ Cartographic images are the most important form of submitting geoinformation to people, and folding maps is one of the main functions of GIS.

13.4. GEOINFORMATION MAPPING

Geoinformation cartography - tse automated creation and selection of maps based on GIS and databases of cartographic data and knowledge. The essence of geo-information cartography is to become information-cartographic modeling of geosystems.
Geoinformation cartography can be both galuzev and complex, analytical and synthetic. Vіdpovіdno before the accepted clasifіkatsіy see vidi that type of cartography (for example, socially-economical, ecological or inventory, otsіnne geoinformatsiyne cartography, etc.).
Tsey was directly formed not by rapt and not on an empty space. It integrated a number of cartography galleries, raising them to a higher technological level. Yogo coils are laid out in a complex, then in a synthetic and an estimated-predictive cartography. As a stepping stone, becoming the development of systemic cartography, for some reason, attention is paid to the whole image of the geosystems of that iogo elements (subgeosystems), hierarchy, interrelationships, dynamics, and functioning. The whole ground support is based on mathematical methods and automated technologies, and it is already one short time before the creation of automatic cartographic systems and GIS. Іnakshe vyslovlyuyuchis, geoinformation cartography viniklo and develop as a direct continuation of the complex, synthetic and distant - systemic cartography in the new geoinformation medium.
Among the characteristic figures of the first kind of cartography, the most important are:
♦ high level of automation, based on digital cartographic data and geographic (geological, ecological and other) knowledge;
♦ system analysis before fermentation and analysis of geosystems;
♦ interactivity of cartography, even better methods of creating and using cards;
♦ Efficiency, which is approaching the real hour, including the wide variety of remote sensing data;
♦ rich variability, which allows for a different assessment of situations and a range of alternative solutions;
♦ rich middle (multimedia), which allows you to use icons, texts, sounds;
♦ promotion of computer design and new graphic image-making tools;
♦ creation of images of new types and types (electronic maps, three-dimensional computer models and animations and others);
♦ important problem-practical orientation of cartography, aimed at ensuring the satisfaction of the decision.
Geoinformation cartography - software-based cartography. It accumulates the reach of remote sensing, space cartography, cartographic method of follow-up and mathematical cartographic modeling.
At its development of geoinformation cartography, vikoristovu dosvіd complex geographic achievements and systemic thematic cartography. Zavdyaki tsomu naprikintsi XX cent. geoinformation cartography has become one of the main directions in the development of cartographic science and versatility.

13.5. FAST MAPPING

Operational cartography - one of the cornerstones of geoinformation cartography, the essence of it is to create the creation of different maps at a real time close to real time with the method of quick (self-time) informing and influencing the process.
The real scale of the hour is characterized by the speed of creation - the choice of cards, tobto. the pace that ensures negain processing of information, what to find, cartographic visualization for evaluation, monitoring and control of any processes and phenomena that change at the same pace.
In practical situations, the prompt preparation of cartographic creations and the delivery of them to the elderly become an important and vital intellectual task. Operational cards are recognized for solving a wide range of problems, and first for everything for advance (signaling) about unsustainable or unsafe processes, keeping abreast of their development, folding recommendations and forecasts, choosing options for control, stabilization, or changing the course of the process in other useful areas - in environmentally friendly areas podіy.
Sequence of opening of operational cards of two types: one dovgotrivale away from the choice of that analysis (for example, cards for the voting of the voters), and otherwise - on short hours zastosuvannya for a negajnoї assessment of any situation (for example, maps of the stages of maturation of agricultural crops).
The main data for operational cartography are materials of aerospace survey, without mediation and vimiri, statistical data, results of surveys, censuses, referendums, cadastral information. And the efficiency of operational cartography depends on three factors:

• supremacy automatic system, security entry and data processing, secure access to databases;
• frontal reading of the operational maps themselves, the simplicity of their formal design, which ensures efficient visual perception in the minds of operational analysis of situations;
• Efficiency of expansion of cards and delivery to their families, including those for the same telecommunication measure.

Operatively, I will become and change the appearance of the most significant rank associated with automated preparations dynamic maps . The stench allows you to imagine not only the structure, but also the nature of the phenomena and processes that occur in the earth's crust, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and, more importantly, in the zones of their contact and mutual modality. Dynamic mapping, moreover, is the most efficient way to visualize the results of monitoring.

13.6. CARTOGRAPHIC ANIMATIONS

Traditional cartography has three ways to improve the dynamics of phenomena and processes, their vinification, development, change at the hour and movement in space:

• display of dynamics on one card for additional arrows or lines of movement, “growing” signs and diagrams, areas that expand, isolin sharpness of change of appearances, etc.;
• displaying the dynamics for an additional series of time cards, znimkiv, photo cards, block diagrams and other things that fix the object at a different moment (period) hour;
• folded maps change the state of the appearance, if it is not the dynamics itself that is shown, but only the results of the change that happened (areas of change).

Geoinformation cartography and expanding the possibilities of expanding the dynamics of geosystems, introducing cartographic animation (multiplication) into practice - especially the dynamic sequence of map frames, which creates the effect of movement during demonstrations. Animations have gone out of everyday life, the stench has become the floorings, like cosmic signs and electronic maps. Good butt can be butt television maps for the weather forecast, on which you can see the movement of fronts, areas of high and low pressure, atmospheric fall.
Disrupted impersonal technologies and methods of trapping images that are collapsing. Specially created computer programs, how to use modules that provide different options and combinations of cartographic animations:

• moving all the cards by the screen;
• multiplication sequence of map frames or 3-world images;
• changing the speed of the demonstration, frame-by-frame review, turning to the selected frame, reverse sequence;
• relocation of okremih elements to change (objects, signs) by a card;
• changing the type of elements to change (objects, signs), their dimensions, orientation, instantaneous signs and such;
• variation of zabarvlennya (pulsation and defiluvannya), change of intensity, creation of the effect of vibration of color;
• change of lightness or background, “brightening” and “shading” of the surroundings of the card;
• panorama, change of projection and perspective (points to look around, foreshortening, nahil), wrapping of 3-world images;
• scaling (zooming) the image of some part of the object, subtracting from the effect of the “fluffiness” of the distant object;
• creating an effect of chaos over the map (“oblіt” of the territory), including with different swedishness.

Animations can be shown in normal (24 frames per second), accelerated or slow speed. The findings blame the new for cartography problems of timing generalization, the choice of image-creating features, the introduction of principles for accepting rough maps by readers.
Dynamic images to give the traditional static maps of the flooring the necessary time aspect to the successors. At the link with the cim, it’s true that it’s clear time scale (or time scale). At the singing sensi one can speak about a generally-, medium- and medium-scale image. For example, one second of the demonstration of the animation map is (rounded) one dob or in one second - one month.

13.7. VIRTUAL MAPPING

A further development of geoinformation technologies, having caused the creation of images that increase the power of the map, perspective image, block diagrams and computer animation. Such images took away the name of the virtual ones. This term may be a little bit of meaningful insights: capable, potential, not essential, but building blame for singing minds, temporal chi non-trivial, and smut - not real, but such itself, like real, unrecognizable kind of real. In machine graphics, the visualization of virtual reality conveys a constant stagnation of effects in trivity and animation. The very stench creates the illusion of presence in the real space and the possibility of interactive interaction with it.
In cartography, virtual models are understood as images of real objects that are formed and based on a software-cured medium. As if it were a cartographic image, stench may be a projection, a scale and may be generalized. herself virtual reality- this is an interactive technology that allows you to create real (or) visual objects, their links and blue in the program-ceramic medium.
It is important that you see the mental signs, the exercise to give the virtual images "naturalness", volume, natural illumination and illumination create the illusion of a real object's foundation. Tim themselves speed up the process of communication and promote the efficiency of transmission of space information.
Technologies for creating virtual images of various kinds. Sound the link according to the topographic map, a digital model is created by an aero-or space star, then a three-dimensional image of space. Go farbuyut at the color of the hypsometric scale, or go to the photographic landscape and far away to be like a real model.
One of the most extensive virtual operations is the “shading” of the captured image. Special software modules ensure the protection of the floor: reverse direction, reversal, change of speed, perspective display. Behind the additional keyboard and joystick (a manipulator in the form of a handle with buttons) you can monitor the flight at a given height, from the installed swidkistyu, over the points from the back of the line, take coordinates. In addition, it was given to the possibility of choosing the sky (gloomy), fog, minds of lightening the mist, the height of the Sun, the hour of the day, the effects of the wood or the snow falling thin. Editing modules allow you to additionally apply a new thematic change, change the texture of the material, change the colors of the grid and padding, place inscriptions, choose the size and color of the fonts, add texts and add sounds.
Large-scale thematic virtual images give a report on the relief and landscape, geological life, water objects, growing slopes, places, ways to get lucky. The possibility of integrating various thematic information in a single model is one of the main advantages of a virtual image. Prol_tayuchi Tu "freezy" above the mountains, you can go in detail the theranniy of ї ї shylіv, to carry out the morphometric vimіry, visnaty the character of Erosіini, that of the zezvnyh processes, and Rukhauchi over the Issi Territory - Otsіniti Square, Obudov, the Rospodilius of the Greenery Music, Write the Romisitna Novyih Budіvel, the vehicles of Magic.
With virtual modeling, it is often necessary to use a bagatarial approximation. For one and the same digital model of the relief, the landscape and the curve of the curve, a sprat of approximations with different levels of detail is made. Tse allows you not to be divided between larger and smaller scales, but go beyond the need for a higher level of detail. So we blame our own multi-river generalization.
The most virtual image congestion can occur when such practical tasks are implemented, such as monitoring areas of natural risk, the life of highways, the laying of pipelines, the assessment of the environment and the expansion of noise from airports. It is possible to use similar technologies for scientific and primary purposes, for example, for creating mid-scale virtual images, including globes. On the globes, let's say, the natural zonality of the earth's backwaters, the overrun of climatic processes, the seasonal changes in the dewy curve and the landscape, the migration of the population, and the flow of traffic flows are depicted. Plots of virtual thematic maps of the flooring are different, like traditional cartography.

13.8. ELECTRONIC ATLAS

The creation of capital atlases is being developed, as it seems, on a long-term basis, and the main problem is becoming old, often more than an hour of preparation. Electronic atlases are an alternative to paper. The stench allows you to significantly shorten the terms of folding, to win as you wear CDs, to stop animations and multimedia products. Such atlases can hold high-quality cards, make a friendly interface and sound good sound-finding systems.
Іnuє kіlka types of electronic atlasіv:

• atlases only for visual review (“re-glottis”), so called in the atlases;
• "interactive atlases", in some way of changing the design, ways of depicting and classifying the objects that are being cartographed, scaling up and changing (scaling) the image, scaling paper copies of cards;
• "Analytical atlases", which allow you to combine and create maps, conduct their analysis and assessment, overlay overlays, open spaces of correlations, - in fact, the entire GIS-atlasi;
• atlases, placements in computer telecommunications networks, for example, Internet atlases. In their structures, the maps and interactive features of the language are present in search of additional information on the maps.
• Maps of complex electronic atlases of different types of information versions:
• richly functional basic balls, like wins for rich cards;
• analytical and synthetic balls from specific topics;
• promptly update thematic versions.

All of them can be included to change different maps to the atlas, let's say, the basic ball "geological budova" can be distinguished not only for a good geological map, but also for other generalization - for maps of brown copalins, hydrogeology, geology, engineering and engineering sharіv significantly simplifies the labor process of folding and mutually agreeing to maps.
Most of the krai have created national electronic atlases. As a rule, stinks are based on rich paper atlases. However, electronic atlases do not always repeat their paper prototypes themselves through more efficient updating of maps, the appearance of new plots and the frequent change of structure.
First in the history of the Ukrainian state created National Atlas of Ukraine - cartographic TV of the encyclopedic rіvnya. The Atlas displays the whole range of knowledge about the current territory of Ukraine. The electronic version is based on traditional cartographic approaches and modern geoinformation technologies, as a way of calling on general information about the history, natural, social and environmental features of Ukraine at the beginning of the 21st century.
The electronic version of the National Atlas of Ukraine is covered by a wide range of coverage. A lot of basic information for yourself should be known by everyone: from schoolchildren and students to geographers. Possibility of working with the electronic version is less likely to fall short of newbies and the insufficiency of coristuvachiv.
Atlas contains 875 unique cards, created on the basis of new knowledge and statistical information, as well as texts, graphics and photographs. Wine organically goes to six thematic blocks.
Zagalna characteristic . Information about the geopolitical position of Ukraine, physical and geographical understanding and administrative devices, space for European and world natural resource, economic and demographic potential.
History . Information about the main stages of the history of the Ukrainian people and the state.
Natural mind and natural resources . Information about the peculiarities and quality of the natural minds of the country, the presence and quantity of natural resources.
Population . Information about the number, distribution of the population, the structure of the population, the national warehouse, especially the demographic, social, economic and humanitarian development.
Economy . Information that reflects the development of the productive forces of Ukraine, the structure, specialization and territorial organization of the state and the sweeping trends in the transformation of the economy.
Ecological camp of dovkіllya . The maps show a comprehensive assessment of the state of the environment and the pollution of the natural environment and other components of nature, the monitoring system, the natural reserve fund and other territories that are protected.
The electronic version of the National Atlas of Ukraine is a unique collection on one disk of great information about Ukraine, prepared by the ceremonial facsimiles at your own closet. Manual interface and simplicity of choice is a guarantee that you can easily find the necessary information.

Geoinformation systems and technologies

Geoinformation system (GIS)- a richly functional information system, recognized for the collection, processing, modeling and analysis of space data, its selection and selection in case of solving the rozrahunkov’s tasks, preparing and making decisions. The main recognition of the GIS is to form knowledge about the Earth, about the territories, the space, as well as to bring the necessary and sufficient space data to the core with the method of achieving the greatest efficiency of their work.

Geoinformation Technologies (GIT)– the purpose of information technologies for processing geographically organized information.
p align="justify"> The main feature of the GIS, which means superiority in pairing with other AIS, is the visibility of the geoinformation basis, that is. digital maps (CC), which provide the necessary information about the earth's surface. With whom the Central Committee can be safe:
accurate binding, systematization, selection and integration of all information that should be found and taken away (single address space);
complexity and accuracy of information for making a decision;
possibility dynamic modeling processes and events;
the possibility of automated execution of tasks, related to the analysis of the territory's features;
the possibility of operational analysis of the situation in emergency situations.
The history of the development of GIT is related to the work of R. Tomleson with the creation of the Canadian GIS (CGIS), which were carried out in 1963-1971.
For a wide range of GIT - data sets and analytical tools for work with coordinate-linked information. GIT is the main information technology in geography, and information technology is the processing of geographically organized information.
The essence of GIT is manifested in the її zdatnosti po'yazuvati z cartographic (graphic) objects and description (attributive) information (for example, alphanumeric and other graphic, sound and video information). As a rule, alphanumeric information is organized as a relational database table. In the simplest way, a skin graphic object (and you can see dots, lines, and Maidan objects) should have a table row in front of it - a record in the database. Vykoristannya such zv'yazku, vlasne, and v_dkrivaє so rich functional feasibility before GIT. The ability to, of course, vary in different systems, but also the basic set of functions, sound like an implementation of GIT, for example, the ability to supply "what is it?" description of the object on the map and "where to know?" seen on the map of objects, selected for a day by the mind at the database. Before the basic ones, you can also add a note to the nutrition "what's the order?" and yoga different modifications. Historically, the first and most universal choice of GIT is the informational-poshukovo, dovidkovy systems.
In this way, GIT can be considered as an extended database technology for coordinate-referenced information. Ale navit tsemu sensi won є a new way of integrating and structuring information. Time is zoomed by Tim, Scho in the real Svіti B_lsha partial part of Introduction to Og'єktіv, for more importantly, the role of Vіdіnguє їM. Script is becoming, and the form of іvmmmortashvanya, and tie, gіt with fatty databases, knowingly vikoristannya and give the DL their "cartographic interface" for organizing the data base at once from the means of generating a "graphic" sound. I, nareshti, GIT adds a new functionality to the great DBMS - the choice of open spaces between objects.
ГІТ allows you to win over the impersonal cartographic objects of the operation, similar to the big relational ones (JOIN, UNION, INTERSECTION). Group operations are called overlays, to the fact that in different variants there are more than one overlay of one multiple objects on another. In fact, overlay operations may have a great analytical potential, and for rich areas of stosuvanie GIT є the main ones, without worrying about application tasks (land surveying, complex assessment of territories and others).
GIT promotes an absolutely new path for the development of cartography. Nasampered, the main shortcomings of the original maps are reported: the static nature of the data and the exchange of the "paper" as a carrier of information. In the rest of the decade, not only folding special cards of the ecological type, but a number of outstanding paper cards become "unreadable" due to the overwhelm of information. GIT overcomes the problem with a way of cherishing the visualization of information. It is possible to display on the screen or on a hard copy of only those objects, or a few of them, as they are necessary at the given moment. Tobto actually zdіysnyuєtsya transition from folded complex cards to a series of interchangeable private cards. In this case, it is ensured to improve the structuredness of the information, which allows you to effectively win (manipulation, analysis of data only). Obviously, there is a tendency to increase the role of GIT in the process of activating information resources, because Large arrays of cartographic information are effectively transformed into an active machine-readable form with the help of GIT. In addition, the GIT map becomes a dynamic dynamic object.

Remain zoomed in on the upcoming new features of GIT:
change in scale;
transformation of map projections:
varіyuvannyam ob'єknim warehouse cards;
"optuvannyam" through the map in real-time mode of numerical databases, what to remove information, what changes;
variation of symbology, that is, in a way of visualization of objects (colour, line type, too), including the designation of symbology through the meaning of the attribute signs of objects, which allows you to synchronize the visualization with changes in the database.
In this hour, it is widely understood that GIT is not a class type software systems and basic technology (umbrella technology) for rich computer add-ons (methods and programs) that work with space information.
Oskіlki TsKM є sets of these folding structures, їх dotsіlno represent in different formats. Under the format of the TsKM, a system of classification and coding of data of mass was specially developed. In the accepted format of the CCM, the great world should lay down the efficiency of the development of functional tasks (FZ) in the management systems of the military recognition. So, for example, in times of representation of relief by horizontal lines, the calculation of the profile of mass is borrowed from a thousand times more than an hour, lower when given to relief in the form of a matrix of heights.
One of the most important and widest types of informational needs in geoinformation is the image of a business card on the AWP screen (card visualization). Ale, please, display the CCM on the screen of the workstation, in order from the pointing more powerfully to the accessibility, due to a number of specific promptings, the need to bring information to the people. As a matter of fact, there are advances in ergonomics, which can be seen in a complex with others:
according to the "readability" of the situation (in order to achieve high characteristics of security and reliability of people's information about the operational situation on the map);
according to the "readability" of the map, (in order to achieve high characteristics of the speed and reliability of the person's perception of cartographic information);
for the "comfort" of the sprinyattya, (so the form of fermentation of data is not to blame for the increase in the supernatural tension of a person when spriynyattі іnformatsії її teasing її organіtja with the method of safety of the necessary trivality її pratsezdatnostі).
The Federal Law foresees its own decision on the difference in the data of the masses. In the opinion of the authors, all the tasks according to the nature of the TsKM victoria can be divided into two main classes:
zavdannya, scho to see the image of the card on the extension of the introduction-viewing of automation and vikoristovuyut її like a scum for the visualization of the operational situation (OKF);
zavdannya, scho to win information about the nature and profile of men (OHPM);
zavdannya, scho to win information about the road barrier (RDS);
zavdannya, scho to win information about the locality of the object in the borders of the territory of the state, zones in the range or neutral territory (ZMP).
The chiefs of the OKF are the chiefs, who reflect the operational situation in the process of dialogue with the koristuvach. The data of the zavdannya can display "above the map" information about the grouping of their military and military opponents, zones of radioactive, chemical, biological contamination, sucrose ruins, fire, flooding, about direct lines and borders, areas of concern and others. Significant for the head of the OKF is the peculiarity of the TsKM display of the need for a quick display of the image on the AWP screen at different scales.
Until the date of the OHPM, the appointment of the selection of the time for the development of radio relay stations (RRS), tropospheric stations (TRS), radar stations (PJIC), the provision of radio technical intelligence, and radio electronic warfare is announced. The manager of the assessment of the zahisnih authorities of the city in the regions of the arranging of the points of management (PU) and the vozlіv zv'yazku (US), the planning of the fire infusion is too thin. also lie down to the class of OHPM. The specialty of the head of the OHPM is the need for appointment high speed characteristics of mass on the outskirts of the point with more coordinates.
Prior to the RDS task, it is necessary to know, zocrema, the task of the route and the planning of the order of moving the military moldings, the optimal planning of the transportation of the goods, or the delivery of those days. The data of the chief victorist are the data of the TsKM about the road fence, which may be presented in a special form - in the look of the count, in which all the roads that tangle, mayut the peak in the crossroads.
Zavdannya ZMU vykoristovuyut at the Central Committee of the Ministry of Culture data about the state (land and maritime) and other cordons, assignments for special forms - for looking at closed contours.
According to the type of information needs, a lot of federal laws can be classified up to a number of different classes. Zakrema, the head of the appointment of the optimal region for the pharynx of the RRS, can be the mother of the power of the OHPM and RDS classes, and the decision process for organizing a dialogue with the coristuvach - the power of the OKF class.

In connection with the deep interpenetration of internal combustion engines and other information technologies, it is worth looking at the interrelationship of GIT with other technologies.

Nasampered, graphic technologies of computer-aided design (CAD), vector graphic editors, and, on the other hand, relational DBMS technologies. Larger implementation of modern GIT at its core is the integration of these two types of information technologies. The next type of controversial information technologies is the technology of processing images of bitmap graphic editors. Actual GIT implementations are based on raster representation of graphical data. That is why there are a lot of modern GICs of global recognition to integrate the possibility of both vector and raster manifestations. In its own line, a number of image processing technologies, recognized for work with data from aero- and space studies, are even close to GIT, and sometimes they often perform their functions. Ale, sound the stench to GIT complementary and may have special tools for interfacing with them (ERDAS LiveLink to ARC / INFO)

Closely disputed to GIT are cartographic (geodesic) technologies, which are used during the processing of data of field geodetic surveys and after them maps (when maps are obtained from aerial photographs with different photogrammetric techniques and during robots with a digital model of the terrain). Here, there is a trend towards integration, because the number of modern GIS is important to include the features of coordinate geometry (COGO), as they allow you to directly vicorize the data of field geodetic posts, including directly from the devices with digital registration or from the adoption of the satellite global position system. Photogrammetric packets sound orientated to a separate work with GIS and are included in the GIS as modules for an hour.

The essence of GIT is manifested in the її zdatnosti po'yazuvati z cartographic (graphic) objects and descriptive (attributive) information (for us, alphanumeric and other graphic, sound and video information). As a rule, alphanumeric information is organized as a relational database table. For the simplest type of skin graphic object (dotted, linear chi Maidan), a row of tables - a database entry - should be placed in front of it. The choice of such a link ensures the richness of the functionality of GIT. The ability to, of course, vary in different systems, but also the basic set of functions, sound like an implementation of GIT, for example, the ability to supply "what is it?" description of the object on the map and "where to know?" seen on the map of objects, selected for a day by the mind at the database. Before the basic ones, you can also add a note to the nutrition "what's the order?" and yoga different modifications. Historically, the first and most universal choice of GIT is the informational-poshukovo, dovidkovy systems.

In this way, GIT can be considered as an extended database technology for coordinate-referenced information. Ale navit tsemu sensi won є a new way of integrating and structuring information. Tse pov'yazano z scho, that the world has more information to lie down to the objects, which play an important role in the expanses of the camp, the form and intermoroztashuvannya. Also, GIT in rich add-ons significantly expand the capabilities of great DBMSs.

ГІТ, as if it were another technology, is oriented towards the decision of the singing stake of the factory. Oskіlki oblast zastosuvannya GIS dosit wide (on the right, cartography, geography, localization, organization of transport dispatching services only), then through the specifics of the problems that occur in the skin of them, and the features associated with a particular class of manager and premogi that 'They are up to date and past data, accuracy, technical benefits and more, it is problematic to talk about the same GIS technology.

At the same time, be-yak GIT includes low operations, which can be seen as basic. The stench is divided in specific implementations by more details, for example, by a software service for scanning and post-scanner processing, by the possibilities of a geometric transformation of the visual image in the fallow in the past, and the quality of the material is too thin.

Oskіlki induced a model є zagalnennoyu, it is natural, that it is not possible to avenge other blocks, the power of their concrete technology, or else you can have those blocks in your warehouse, yakі in a row of vipadkіv can be used daily.

Based on the results of the analysis of the generalized model of GIS technology, one can see the following basic operations of GIS:

• editorial and preparation work, the selection, analysis and preparation of visual information (cartographic data, aerial photographs, remote sensing data, ground-based monitoring results, statistical information in general) for automated processing;
• designing geodetic and mathematical foundations of maps;
• card design;
• encouraging the project of a digital thematic card;
• transformation of output data into digital form;
• development of a thematic layout of the card;
• designation of methods for automated prompting of thematic change;
• forming a digital global geographic basis of the map that is being created;
• the creation of a digital thematic map is suitable for a fragmented project;
• content of visual cartographic products.

For the introduction of visual information, raster attachments are used to scan, digitizers, navtone scanners for aerophoto negatives. The selection of digital data arrays is necessary for a complex of technical tools for processing raster and vector data, promptings on the basis of work stations and personal professional EOM. On this very instrumental base, all stages of design, transformation of external information and creation of a digital thematic map are taken into account.

A digital cartographic model has been formed to be used by a complex of technical facilities for the formation of cartographic products, including plotters, printers, special equipment for imaging on photocarriers, etc.

The data collected and processed digital data are stored in the archival data storage system, which is based on streamers or optical disks.

The areas of GIT stagnation are somewhat different.

Nasampered, ce rіznі cadastres, systems for managing the division of the state and infrastructure. Here Rosvinenі Specіalisovani by Programs, Firm, for Systems: Electric Mezhi Energistic Companion, Cable Merozі, Folding Pipeline Geority of the Great Him City Plant, Land Cadastre, Shaho Overcome Head, and Torjo Destales, Yak Complex Systems, Scho Hypan Structures places or territories

that building virishuvati folded managerial and planning. Konkretnі tsіlі that zavdannya in such systems duzhe rіznomanіtnі: od zavdan іnventarizatsії that oblіku, dovіdkovih systems zagalnogo koristuvannya to opodatkuvannya, mіstobudіvno-planuvalnih zavdan, planuvannya novih the agriculture marshrutіv that optimіzatsії transported, rozpodіlu MEREZHI resursіv that poslug (skladіv, magazinіv, stantsіy shvidkoї Relief, car rental points).

Another separate sphere is the stagnation of GIT, its appearance, the cultivation of natural resources, including the protection of the necessary environment. Here they are also used as complex systems, so they are specialized: for the forest state, the water state, the protection of wild fauna and flora, too. Until the end of the world, zastosuvannya without intermediary adheres to GIT in geology, like in science, and in practical tasks. Not less than the task of informational security, and th, for example, the task of predicting the genera of brown copalins, control of ecological traces of the development is poor. In geological studies, as well as in environmental ones, the role of additives is great, which requires folding programming or complexing GIT from specific processing systems and modeling. Especially in this plan, additives are seen in the oil and gas fields. Here, at the stage of research and exploration, seismic survey data and very specific and rozvinene PZ schodo їx processing and analysis are widely used. There is a great need for complex solutions, which pose a great deal of geological and other problems, which cannot be solved without irradiation of universal GIS.

Okremo next to see the daily transport schedule. Among them: planning new transport routes and optimizing the process of transporting with the possibility of expanding the resources and changing the transport environment (repairs, traffic jams, barricades). Particularly promising in the strategic plan are navigation systems, especially those based on satellite systems navigation for the help of digital cartography.

A characteristic feature of the GIT development is the integration of systems and databases in national, international and global information structures. Before global projects lie, for example, the GDPP - "Global Data Base Project", which is being developed within the framework of the International Geospheric-Biospheric Program. On a national level, GIS is used in the USA, Canada, France, Sweden, Finland and other countries. In Russia, the regional GIS, zocrema, land cadastre and municipal administration, and navit offices of the GIS, for example, from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, are being developed.

An analysis of the current day on the date of the GIT stoking shows that the main form of the GIT zastosuvannya is the difference in prices, folding, warehouse and capacity of the GIS.

Modern HIS are a new type of integrated systems, which, on the one hand, include methods for processing data of basic automation systems, and on the other hand, they may be specific in organizing and processing data

Shards in the GIS are used for a complex processing of information (from collection to collection, updating that data), they can be seen from different points of view:

• GIS as a management system - recognized for the provision of support to make decisions based on the selection of cartographic data;
• HIS as an automated information system - progressively low technologies of other information systems (CAD and others);
• GIS as a geosystem - including technologies of photometry, cartography;
• GIS as a system, which is a victorious database, is characterized by a wide range of data, which are chosen for the help of various methods and technologies;
• GIS as a modeling system, a system for providing information, a development of documentary circulation systems, multimedia systems, etc.

GIS with different analytical capabilities are close to the systems of statistical analysis and data processing, moreover, in a number of ways they can be integrated into a single system, for example:

Implantation before the current HIS ARC/INFO straining statistical package S-PLUS;

adding some possibilities of space statistics and cartographic visualization to mass statistical packages (SYSTAT for Windows);

development of the Russian GIS within the framework of the SAS package - the leader among systems for processing numerical information.

The most widely used GIS (sound with a strong support and raster model), which can be good at programming, is widely used for modeling natural and technogenic processes, including the widening of brooding, forest fires and others. also include the simplest tools for cartographic visualization.

The emergence of a wide range of trends in the development of various areas of information technology, the interests of which converge in the areas of GIT, as well as the emergence of universal packages of wide demand, has led to the fact that the boundaries of GIT become less clear. Also, the understanding of the fully functional GIS (full GIS) has developed in an hour.

The current fully functional GIS is a richly functional information system, recognized for the collection, processing, modeling and analysis of space data, their interpretation and selection at the completion of roseworks, preparing and making decisions. The main recognition of the multi-functional GIS is to shape the knowledge about the Earth, about the territories, the space, as well as to bring the necessary and sufficient space data to the core with the method of achieving the greatest efficiency of their work.

Fully functional GIS can be safe:

• two-way communication between cartographic objects and tabular data base records;
• management of the visualization of objects, which ensures the choice of the warehouse and the form of visualization;
• work with dotted, linear and maidan objects;
• introduction of cards from the digitizer or scanner and their editing;
• support of topological interactions between objects and reverification for their additional geometrical correctness of the map, incl. closeness of the Maydan objects, zv'aznosti, prilyagannya that іn;
• support of various cartographic projections;
• geometrical vimiryuvannya on the map of dozhina, perimeter, area and in; pobudova buffer zones on the objects and implementation of other overlay operations;
• creation of high-quality designations, including new types of marker signs, types of lines, types of shading and ing; fold additive elements design of cards, signatures, frames, legends;
• visnovok of high quality hard copies of maps; the execution of transport and other tasks on the graphs, for example, the designation of the shortest path toshchoo;
• work with a topographic surface.

The cream of functional GIS of a global recognition, they see specializations, as often there are ambiguities between specialization packages, which is not in the same meaning of GIS. For example, GIS, orienting the planning of communication planning, transport and navigation tasks, the task of engineering surveys and the design of disputes.

Non-specialized GIS of the lower level, lower functional systems of global recognition, are called "personal cartographic visualization systems" (desktop mapping systems, desktop GIS) Vіdmіnnoy їх rice є, nasampered, obmezhenі analytic possiblility (for example, daily overlay operations for maydannyh objects) and weak possiblility of introducing and editing the cartographic base. A typical butt of such a system is є GIS Maplnfo, in yakіy for its small size, it is more simple in learning and more common and more accessible to the mass coristuvach.

Today, the number of GIS-packages, which are put on the market, are counted in thousands. Prote zdebіlshgo tse spetsіalіzovanі systems. There are dozens of real fully functional GIS-packages of global recognition on the market. The best software for GIC is being developed by specialized companies, less in some cases the products of great companies, for which GIC is not the main product (IBM, Intergraph, Computervision, Westinghouse Electric Corp., McDonnel Douglas, Siemens Nixdorf). For a number of packages and for a number of installations, a PC (MS DOS, MS Windows) and UNIX workstations are transported.

It should be noted that in this hour of full-functional GIS of the main recognition, it is important to focus on workstations with the UNIX operating system. On a PC, as a rule, systems with reduced capabilities function. Often it depends on the specifics of the corystuvachiv PC, for those riches, a simple GIS is needed only as an addition to the sizable PZ. Ale, the main reason is that they are powerful, as if the GIC is forced to hang up to the computer's hardware.

The topological vector structures of data are collapsible by their nature, and the processes of their selection lead to intensive developments, significantly larger, lower than the work of the vector graphics, zocrema and part of operations from a floating point. Serious programs often use old numbers and current numbers of variable accuracy. For robots with GIS, you need a display of a high rozdilnosti and a swedish graphic adapter or an accelerator, moreover, it can be up to a palette of zhorstkishi, lower in CAD. The stench is more welcome than the analogues to the visual systems of professional polygraphy. Particularly high to high speed painting is typical for HIS (and less typical for CAD) tasks for filling a large number of closed bagatokutnikіv (polygonіv) folding forms.

Serious projects with the help of GIS work with great commitments of data from hundreds of megabytes to as many as tens of gigabytes. Particularly high in the capacity of disk storage and main memory, as well as the computer's firmware, present GIC with image processing for visualizing raster structures, for example, in tasks of geometric correction of aerodynamics, modeling of natural processes on the surface of the earth with a robot. One color aeroznіmok vysokoї razdіlnoї zdatnostі standard format, to convert yoga into digital form without losing "accuracy" (24 bit, 1200 dpi) takes about 200 MB. A rich task of the regional character is necessary to combine and geometrically create a mosaic of many such signs, moreover, it is recognized as an orthotic to create a raster pad for such a mosaic of aero-cosmic signs, then for a digital map vector. photographs are "imprinted" on the image of the card. The same respect is fair and for robots with aerospace signs in a different way, so that you can see different information on them (operations of a different kind of filtering, transformation by contrast, operations with the variation of Four’s Swiss transformation, classification algorithms, discriminant, cluster and factor analysis, as well as the method of principal components). Therefore, instead of saving dozens of versions of the processing, which would amount to hundreds of GB per 1 frame, rational

beat them to the top. Modern specialized robotic stations cope with such tasks, for a PC it's even more important. One-time operation with one frame on a PC is three times a sprat. If it is necessary to model folding natural processes, broaden the zabrudnennya, forest fires or stop the data of aerospace zoning, the selection of a specialized robotic station is inevitable.

It should be noted that the speed of accumulation of obsyagiv aerospace (especially cosmic) data is still going at the same pace, or else it will increase the pace of the increase in the number of PC strains and working stations. Definitely, moving over the skin of the Earth expanded from a great place, no less than 800-1000 MB of satellite images are collected. And to instill a lie, that half of them for the minds of gloominess are unsuitable for victoria in GIT-additions, all the same to become a majestic potik. And one more respect: the diversity of buildings for the collection of remote information is constantly growing, and the increase in the geometric permission on the territory from 20 to 10 m has increased the number of data in 4 times. So the skin 2-4 rocky computer system may have a chance to increase its productivity, so it does not match the pace of the development of the building in the collection of information. Zvіdsi zrozumіlo, scho trivaly hour technical basis of hard full-functional HIS with analytical functions will be filled with special work stations.

One more moment, which is a big deal for the importance of maintaining sufficient respect for working WVZY-stations, is the fact that today the main packages of the most "serious" GICs have not yet been translated to the PC.

The main directives of choosing a PC for an hour of work from GIS nі є:

• PC switchboard as a terminal in combination with working stations for robots with large GIS (ARC/INFO);
• using a PC as a station for introducing and modifying digital cards from a digitizer or a scanner (PC ARC! INFO, ArcCAD);
• PC retrieval for GIT projects with a small amount of one-hour active information (PC ARC/INFO, ArcCAD, ArcView);
• using PC for primary purposes for familiarization with GIT methodology;
• The use of a PC at the early stages of great projects, if the data bases are not yet known, it is not necessary to improve the functionality of the great projects and it is necessary to bring the high level of the state of the art of GIT and the need to invest in serious costs.

Since, as a rule, collapsible software and information systems, splintered specifically for stastosuvannya in specific galleys of informational activity, or for the completion of special tasks, then to enter the warehouse:

• operating system;
• application software core;
• modules of thematic processing of data;
• Interactive interface of a koristuvach.

Before the modules of thematic data processing lie:

• software security for the introduction-viewing of data;
• applied software for analysis of vector and raster information;
• DBMS;
• software security of recognition of images;
• software support for the selection of cartographic projections;
• image conversion software;
• software for cartographic generalization;
• software for generating smart signs, etc.

LECTURE 1

1.1 Understanding geoinformation systems

Geographical information system or geoinformation system (GIS) - the whole information system, which ensures the selection, collection, processing, analysis and interpretation of expanse data and associated with them complex data, as well as the removal of such simple information on the basis of geographical knowledge.

It is important that geographic data become more than half of all circulating information, victorious organizations that are engaged in various types of activity, in some necessary form of spacious accommodation of objects. GIS is focused on ensuring the possibility of making optimal management decisions for improving the analysis of space data.

The key words in the designated GIS are the analysis of the expanses of data, or the expanses of analysis. GIS can advise on the following food:

What do you know about the task area?

Where is the area known, how does it support a given set of minds?

The current GIS expanded the selection of cards for the layout of the collection of graphic data from the visually okremy thematic balls, and the similar and quantitative characteristics of the warehouse objects from the visual databases. Such an organization of data for the obviousness of flexible mechanisms for managing them ensures a fundamentally new analytical capacity.

1.2 "Data", "information", "knowledge" in geoinformation systems

Concretizing the terms "data", "information", "knowledge", completely operating them in the information system, it can be seen that, looming richly sleepy, the understanding is different for its own sutty.

p align="justify"> For the sake of understanding the totality of facts, knowing about objects, or the results of simulating these objects. The data, which are victorious at GIS, are recognized by a high level of formalization. Data is a vital element in the process of creating information, shards will not come out of the process of processing data.

How to understand the totality of information that signifies the world of our knowledge about the object.

In this context, knowledge can be the result of the interpretation of information. The most significant recognition: knowledge is the result of knowledge of activity, which has taken away confirmation from practice. Science knowledge is recognized by its systematicity, priming and high level of structurization.

Information systems can be an effective tool for gaining knowledge.

The knowledge between the terms "data", "information" and "knowledge" is simply the history of the development of technical systems, so data banks appeared, later information systems, then systems appeared, based on knowledge - intellectual systems (experts).

At the present time, a number of types of systems are presented on the market of software products, which work with widely distributed information, before them there are systems of automated design, automated mapping and GIS. GIS in relation to other automated systems may be able to analyze open space data.

.3 General functions of GIS systems

Most of the current GIS create a complex processing of information, with the help of the following functions:

Introduction and editing of data;

Supporting models of open spaces;

Saving information;

Reworking of coordinate systems and transformation of cartographic projections;

Raster-vector operations;

Survival operations;

Polygonal operations;

Operations of space analysis;

Rіznі vidi spacious modelyuvannya;

Digital modeling of the relief and analysis of the surface;

Observation of results in different forms.

.4 GIS classification

GIS systems are developed with the help of scientific and applied methods for monitoring environmental situations, rational selection of natural resources, as well as for infrastructural design, local and regional planning, for the development of operational approaches in the minds of these people.

The impersonal task, which is blamed on life, has led to the creation of different GIS, which can classify for such signs:

For functionality:

Povnofunktsionalnі GIS zagalny recognition;

specialization of HIS directing the solution of a specific task in any subject area;

information-advancement systems for home and information-advancement training.

Functional possibilities of HIS are also determined by the architectural principle of their prompting:

closed systems - there are no possibilities for expansion, the stench of the building is less than the set of functions, which is clearly indicated at the time of purchase.

Vidcrit system vіdrіznyayutsya easiness of attachment, feasibility of expansion, shards can be obtained by the coristuvach himself with the help of a special device (in the case of programming language).

For expanse (territorial) okhoplennya:

global (planetary);

global national;

regional;

local (municipal zokrema).

From the problem-thematic orientation:

Zagalnogeografichni;

ecological and nature-correcting;

galuzevі (water resources, lіsokoristuvannya, geological, tourism, too);

For the method of organizing geographic data:

vector;

raster;

vector-raster GIS.

1.5 Dzherela danih ta їх tipi

In the yakost dzherel danih for molding GIS serve:

- cartographic materials(topographic and transcendental geographic maps, maps of the administrative-territorial subdivision, cadastral plans and int.). Vіdomostі, scho otrimuyutsya from maps, mayut teritorialnu pyazyazka, to that it is easy to win as the base ball GІС. Even though there are no digital maps for the final territory, the graphic originals of the maps are converted to a digital look.

remote sensing data(DDZ) daedals are wider vicorated for molding GIS data bases. Before the remote sensing data, we are forwarded to bring materials, like they win from space noses. For remote sensing, various technologies for imaging and transferring them to Earth, carrying satellites (space equipment and satellites) should be placed in different orbits, equipped with different equipment. Zavdyaky otrimuyut znіmki, scho vіdryznyayutsya different level of visibility and detail of the fermentation of objects of the natural environment in different ranges of the spectrum (visible and near infrared, thermal infrared and radio band). All the same, there is a wide range of environmental tasks, as they are violating from the traffic jams of remote sensing.

Prior to the methods of remote sensing, there are also aero-ground surveys and other non-contact methods, for example, hydroacoustic surveys of the seabed relief. The materials of such surveys provide information about the diversity of objects in the natural environment, both as a kіlkіsnoї and as аkіsnoі іnformatsії.

flooring materials teritorіy, vklyuchayut danі topografіchnih, іnzhenerno-geodesic poshukіv, kadastrovoї zyomki, geodezichnі vimіryuvannya natural ob'єktіv scho vikonuyutsya nіvelіrami, teodolіtami, E-total stations, GPS priymachami and takozh result obstezhennya teritorіy іz zastosuvannyam geobotanіchnih that іnshih metodіv, napriklad, that іn ґruntіv .

statistical data to avenge the data of the state statistical services from the various galleries of the people's state, as well as the data of the stationary vimiruval posts of guards (hydrological and meteorological data, information about the wandering of the nasty middle ground, too).

literary data(advanced research, books, monographs and statutes to avenge various types of geographic objects).

In GIS, there is rarely more than one type of tribute, most of the time there are different kinds of tribute to each territory.

LECTURE 2. BASIC GIS COMPONENTS

Up to the main components of the GIS: technical, software, information security. Vymogi to the components of the GIC are assigned, in pershu black, coristuvachem, before which one should stand a specific task (the appearance of natural resources, or the management of the infrastructure of the place), as it may be a virishene for the singing territory, which is inspired by natural minds and the step of їїї.

.1 Technical security

Technical security - the whole complex of hardware facilities, which needs to be fixed every hour of the GIS operation: a working station or personal computer(PC), extension of input-viewing of information, extension of processing and saving of data, provision of telecommunications.

A working station or a PC is the core of an information system that is recognized for managing the GIS robot and for processing data processing processes based on computational and logical operations. Modern GIS buildings promptly process a large array of information and visualize the results.

The introduction of these data is implemented with the help of various technical aids and methods: directly from the keyboard, with the help of a digitizer and a scanner through external computer systems. Extensive data can be taken by electronic geodetic devices, without intermediary for the help of a digitizer and a scanner, or for the results of image processing on analytical photogrammetric devices or digital stations.

Attachments for processing and saving data concentration in the system block, which include the central processor, operational memory, zvnіshnі zam'yatovoyuchi pristroї iinterfeys koristuvach.

Attachment of visualization of data is responsible for ensuring the initial presentation of results, first for everything on the monitor, as well as for visualizing graphic originals, rendered on printers or plotters (graphic alarm clock), in addition, obov'yazykova implementation of data export to external systems.

.2 Software

Software security - a set of software tools that implement the functional capabilities of the GIS, and software documents necessary for their operation.

Structural GIS software includes basic and applied software.

Be-yak GIS practices with data of two types of data - spacious and attributive. For their maintenance, software security can include a database management system for quiet data (DBMS), as well as modules for managing data entry and viewing, a data visualization system and modules for visualization of spatial analysis.

Applied software programs are recognized for the development of specialized tasks in a specific subject area and are implemented in a variety of applications and utilities.

2.3 Informatione security

Information security - a collection of arrays of information, coding systems and classification of information. Information security includes the implementation of solutions for types, obligations, placements and forms of organization of information, including research and evaluation of data files, collection of methods for entering data, designing databases, their maintenance and metasupervision. The peculiarity of the collection of spacious data from the GIS - they were divided into balls. Bagatosharova organization of the electronic card, for the presence of a flexible mechanism for controlling the balls, allows you to combine and visualize a lot more information, lower on the sound card. Data about the spacious position (geographical data) and tabular data connected with them can be prepared by the coristuvachi or by the cupuvati. For such an exchange of tribute, the infrastructure of expanses of tribute is important.

The infrastructure of open spaces is determined by legal documents, mechanisms for organizing and integrating open spaces and their accessibility to small residents. The infrastructure of the expanses of data includes three required components: basic space information, standardization of space data, metadata base and data exchange mechanism.

LECTURE 3. STRUCTURES AND MODELS OF DATA

3.1 Vibration of objects of real light in GIS

Objects of the real world, which are viewed in geoinformation, are characterized by spacious, temporal and thematic characteristics.

Extensive characteristics indicate the position of the object in the back of the range of coordinate systems, the main power to such data is accuracy.

Timing characteristics fix the hour of the object's observation and are important for the assessment method of the change in the authority of the object by the hour. The main benefit to such data is relevance, which means the possibility of their selection for processing, irrelevant data - not old data.

Thematic characteristics describe the different power of the object, including economic, statistical, technical and other powers, the main power is totality.

For the presentation of space objects, the GIS uses space and attribute types of data.

Expansive data - vіdomosti, scho characterize the space of roztashuvannya ob'ektіv in the space of one and the same geometry.

Expansive objects to represent behind the help of such graphic objects: points, lines, areas and surfaces.

The description of the objects is determined by the way of specifying the coordinates of the objects and their storage parts.

Points of objects - these are objects, skins of some sorting only in one point of space, represented by a pair of X, Y coordinates.

Linear objects, represented as one world, may have one dimension - dozhina, the width of the object does not appear at this scale. Apply such objects: rivers, inter-municipal districts, horizontal relief.

Regions (polygons) - Maidan objects, represented by a set of pairs of coordinates (X, Y) or a set of objects of the line type, which is a closed contour. Such objects can be territories that are occupied with a simple landscape, a place or a whole continent.

On top - when describing the need to add to the Maidan objects, the height value. Reinforcement of the surface is based on additional variation of mathematical algorithms (interpolation and approximation) for a given set of coordinates X, Y, Z.

Dodatkovі non-simple data of objects establish a set of attributes.

Attributive data - tse akіsnі chi kolіkіsnі characteristics of space objects, like they turn, sound, in alphanumeric look.

Attach these data: geographical name, specific warehouse of growth, characteristics of soils toshcho.

The nature of space and attributive data is different, different and methods of manipulation (storage, input, editing, search and analysis) for two warehouse geoinformation systems. One of the main ideas instilled in traditional HIS is the conservation of communication between expanses and attributive tributes, with separate savings, frequent, separate processing.

A comprehensive digital description of the space object includes: name; vkazіvka roztashuvannya; gaining power; vodnosini koїtsya with other objects. The name of the object is to serve as its geographic name (like it won't), its smart code or identifier, which is hoped for by the system.

The objects of the same type behind spacious and thematic signs are united at the balls of the digital map, which are looked at as if they were only informational units, with the help of which it is possible to see all the obvious information

.2 Data structures

For the presentation of space data, the GIS has to set up vector and raster data structures.

The vector structure is the manifestation of space objects as a set of coordinate pairs (vectors) that describe the geometry of objects (Fig. 1).

Mal. 1. Vector submission of space data

The raster structure of the data is transmitted data in a two-world grid, the skin center is only one value, which characterizes the object, the middle of the raster on the mass or on the image. As such a characteristic can be an object code (forest, meadow, etc.) height or optical width.

The accuracy of raster data is limited by the size of the market. Such a structure is a manual way of analyzing and visualizing various information.

Mal. 2. Raster data structure

For the implementation of raster and vector structures, various data models are divided.

.3 Data models

Models of space data - logical rules for a formalized digital description of space objects

Vector models of data. There are a few ways to combine vector structures of data with a vector model of data that allows you to connect between objects of the same ball or between objects of different balls. The simplest vector model of data is the "spaghetti" model (Fig. 3). And here the graphic image of the card is transferred “one on one”.

Mal. 3. "Spaghetti" model

In this model, there is no description of the lines between objects, a geometric object is saved only and does not overlap with others, for example, a large boundary between objects 25 and 26 is recorded as two, wanting for the help of the same set of coordinates. All information between the objects of guilt is calculated independently, which complicates the analysis of data and collects more information that is collected.

Vector topological models (Fig. 4) provide information about the state, proximity of objects and other characteristics of the mutual expansion of vector objects.

Mal. 4. Vector topological model of data

Topological information is described by a set of nodes and arcs. Vuzol - tse peretin two or more arcs, and the second number is victorious for putting on an arc, such a wine to lay. The skin arc begins and ends, either at the point of the peretina with the other arc, or at the node, so that other arcs cannot lie. The arcs are settled by a sequence of cuts, connected by intermediate points. This skin line can have two sets of numbers: a pair of coordinates of intermediate points and node numbers. In addition, the skin arch can have its own identification number, which is victorious for showing that how the knots form the ear of that end.

Other modifications of vector models, zocrema, are developed, special vector models are developed for the presentation of models on the surface, as will be looked at further.

The raster patterns are drawn in two views. At the first vapadka - to save the weekend images of the moon. In another way, for the selection of thematic balls, if the coristuvachіv tsіkalyat not around the expanse of objects, but to collect points of space, which may have different characteristics (altitude signs or depths, water content of soils, etc.), for operational analysis or visualization.

Use some of the ways to select and address the value of the okremikh middle raster, those attributes, naming the balls and legends.

When varying raster models, it is important to feed embossed raster data, for which the methods of group coding, block coding, lancet coding, and coding in the form of a quadtree are divided.

.4 Data Format

format data choose the method of storing information on a hard disk and the mechanism of processing. Models of data and formats of data in a singing way of mutual understanding.

There is a large number of data formats. It can be noted that GIS packages support the main formats for storing raster data (TIFF, JPEG, GIF, BMP, WMF, PCX), as well as GeoSpot, GeoTIFF, which allow transferring information about linking a raster image to real geographic coordinates, and MrSID - for typing information. The largest extension among vector formats is DXF.

All systems support the exchange of space information (export and import) with GIS and CAD software through the main exchange formats: SHP, E00, GEN (ESRI), VEC (IDRISI), MIF (MapInfo Corp.), DWG, DXF (Autodesk), WMF (Microsoft), DGN (Bentley). Less deeds, more importantly, the country's systems, support Russian exchange formats - F1M (Roskartografiya), SXF (Viysk Topographic Service).

Dosit often for the effective implementation of some computer operations to give priority vector format, And for other rasters. Therefore, in some systems, the possibility of manipulating data in that and in another format, and functions of vector conversion to raster, and navpak, raster to vector format is implemented.

.5 Data base and data management

The collection of digital data about space objects establishes impersonal space data and makes data bases clearer.

Data base (DB) - the collection of data organized by the rules that are established charitable principles inventory, collection and manipulation of data

The creation of the database that is up to it (for the requests) is used for the support of the database management system (DBMS).

The logical structure of the elements of the data base is determined by the selected database model. The most wide-ranging database models are hierarchical, fringe and relational and object-oriented.

ІІєєrarchіchіchі modelsі represent a tree-like structure, in the same way, the records of the skins are covered only with one record, which is on a greater level.

Such a system is well illustrated by the system of classification of roslin and creatures. The butt can be the structure of storing information on PC disks. A common understanding of such a model is riven. Quantity of rivers and yogo warehouse to be deposited at the time of the date of creation of the classification database. Access to any of these records is made by a path through the song lancet vuzliv. With such a structure, it is easy to make a request for necessary data, but as if the description is not correct, or if there is no transfer, be a criterion for a joke, wine becomes impossible. For simple tasks, such a system is efficient, but it is practically unsuitable for use in folding systems with operational water supply.

Merezhev's models were called to usunut deyakі nedolіki iєrarkhіchnih models. In the dermal model of the skin, the record at the dermal node of the dermis can be tied to the kilkom with other nodes. Entries that enter the warehouse of the merging structure, avenge vkazіvniki, which designate the place of roztashuvannya іnshih zapisіv, po'yazanih z them. Such a model allows you to speed up access to data, but changing the structure of the database will require a significant amount of time.

Relational models collect data in unified tables. Tables are supposed to be uniquely named in the middle of the database. Kozhen stovpets - the field, which can be named, is a good attribute, which is to be avenged in the new. The skin row at the table confirms the record at the file. The same field can be found in a number of tables. Since the rows in the table are not in order, one or more columns are indicated, the meaning of which uniquely identifies the skin row. Such a entry is called the primary key. Vzaimozv'yazok table pіdtrimuєtsya zvnіshnіmi keys. Data manipulation is carried out with additional operations that generate tables. Koristuvach can easily enter new data into the database, combine tables, select fields and records, and form new tables for display on the screen.

Object-oriented models zastosovuyut, as the geometry of the sing object of the building is able to suffocate a sprinkling of balls, the attributes of such objects can decrease, and their processing zastosovuyte specific methods.

For the processing of data, placement in the tables, the necessary supplementary information about data, they are called metadata.

Metadata - data about data: catalogs, documents, registers and other forms of description of digital data sets.

LECTURE 4. DATA INTRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

4.1 Entry methods

Depending on the technical requirements, there are two ways to introduce data: digitalization and vectorization. For manual entry of space data, a digitizer is installed. The wine is stacked from a tablet (table) with an electronic grid, until it is attached, which is called a cursor. The cursor is similar to a graphical manipulator - a mouse, a sight, drawing on a plate opening, for the help of which the operator can more accurately aim at the edge of the picture element. Buttons placed on the cursor, which allow fixing the ear and the end of the line or between areas, the number of buttons to lay according to the folding of the digitizer. Digitizers can be used in various formats and ensure the distribution of 0.03 mm from a total accuracy of 0.08 mm on a width of 1.5 m.

Scanners are the most wide-ranging for data entry. They allow you to enter a raster image of a card on a computer. Using Rіznі Tipi Scanner, Yaki Roseznyyuhuznyu: Behind the method of feeding of the Vikhidny Material (Tablet and Stretchi (drum type); behind the method of Іnformazії (psyuyuchі at Provіt Abo on Vіdatnikhna); for Radiometrichy Rydno-by-the The remaining characteristic is determined by the minimum size of the image element that is examined by the scanner.

.2 Converting holidays

The scanned weekend maps were created in the same cartographic projection and coordinate system. When digitized, the projection is folded into a set of spatial coordinates. That is why it is necessary to reshape the card to the її outward projection. For this purpose, statements about the projection are introduced in the GIS, which are victorious (sound GIS allows you to practice with a large number of projections) and a number of changes are made. The three main ones, which are often counted at the same time, are transferring, turning and scaling.

Transferring is simply moving the entire graphic object in a different place on the coordinate plane. Vіn vykonuєtsya adding new values ​​to the coordinates X and Y of the object:

The scaling is even more narrow, the shards are often scanned at different scales, for which the scaling is:

The rotation is based on different trigonometric functions:

All the necessary transformations can be performed using the three main graphical operations on the coordinates of reference points.

.3 Introduction of remote sensing data

In GIS, vicorist does not have the primary materials of the DZ, as they take off the hour of the harvest, but the worse, which are formed as a result of their processing. The tributes from the companions are given in front digital processing for usunennya radiometric and geometric creations, infusion of the atmosphere and then. To improve the visual clarity of external images, procedures can be added to change the clarity and contrast, filtering to remove noise or enhance contours and other details. When vikoristanny aerofotoznіmkіv sleda zvrata respect for the creation, which are called in kutami nahili znіmkіv ta relief mіstsevosti, yakі can be used in the process of transformation or orthophototransformation.

LECTURE 5. ANALYSIS OF SPACE DATA

5.1 Spatial analysis task

There are different procedures for manipulating space and attributive data, which are used in the process of applying for a coristuvach, before the need for space analysis. (For example, the operation of overlaying graphic objects, make an analysis of the border structures and see the objects behind the given signs).

For the dermal GIS-package, it is characteristic of its ability to gain spatial analysis, which ensures the implementation of specific tasks of the coristuvach, at one time you can see a number of basic functions that are practically powerful for the dermal GIS-package. Tse, first of all, organization of the choice and integration of objects in a reasonable way to the tasks of minds, implementation of operations of numerical geometry, analysis of overlays, buffer zones, fencing analysis.

.2 Basic functions of spatial data analysis

Selection of objects by request: the simplest form of request is the removal of the characteristics of the object indicated by the cursor on the screen and the reverse operation, if objects are declared with specified attributes. Larger folding allow you to select objects for decals with signs, for example, for a sign in the distance of some objects from others, objects that run, ale roztashovani in different balls, etc.

For the choice of data, SQL-requests are used up to the singing minds. For Viconnaya, the Risno-Co. Wocistribution of the Mathematical Mathematical Foundation was guided by the Mathematical Mathematical Mathematical Operator, and the geographer operator, Shah, dialize the vibrations of O'єkti at Pіdtstі ї іmnaya Retailshuvannya in Spacious (Fine or mingle with him).

Identification of data can be carried out for the sake of the value of the song attribute, the zone for zoning the territory. Another way of grouping - grouping objects of one thematic ball is similar to placing them in the middle of polygonal objects of other thematic balls.

Geometrical functions: before them one can see the descriptions of the geometrical characteristics of the objects of the yogo mutual camp in the open space, in their victorious formulas of analytical geometry on the flat in the open space. So for maydannyh objects, the area occupied by them or the perimeter of the cordons is calculated, for the linear ones - dozhini, and also the number of objects between the objects is toshcho.

Overlay operations (topological overlay of balls) are one of the widest and most effective methods. Through war, the superimposition of two thematic balls establishes another additional ball as a graphic composition of the outside balls. Vrahovyuchi, scho analysis of objects can lie to different types (point, line, polygon), different forms of analysis can be: point to point, point to polygon, etc. Most often, it is analyzed by polygons.

Pobudov buffer zones. One of the ways to analyze the proximity of objects is to create buffer zones. Buffer zones - ce areas (polygons), between some of the tasks in the middle of the exit object. The boundaries of such zones are calculated from the analysis of the relevant attributive characteristics. In this case, the width of the buffer zone can be constant, so it can change. For example, the buffer zone near the core of the electromagnetic vibration will take the form of a stake, and the zone of turbidity in the smoke pipe of the plant with the improvement of the trojans will be close to the shape of an ellipse.

Merezhevy analysis allows coristuvachevy to analyze the expanses of svyazkovyh line objects (roads, power lines, etc.). Call the fencing analysis to serve as the manager of the appointment of the closest, most prominent route, the appointment of the equal destination on the fence, the assignment of the address of the object to the route for the given address and that other task.

.3 Analysis of the spatial division of objects

Analysis of the spatial distribution of objects. In fact, it is often necessary to know how to occupy the space, borrowing objects, and the expansion of objects in the space, which can be characterized by the number of objects in the singing region, for example, rozpodil number of the population. The most wide-ranging methods and analysis of subdividing point objects. The world of dotted rozpodіlu є schіlnіst. It is shown as a result of rozpodіlu number of points on the value of the area of ​​the territory, de stink roztashovani. The cream of the bush rose under the rose, you can evaluate the shape of the rose under the rose. The points are divided into one of the following possible options: equal (such as the number of points in the skin small pidoblast itself, as well as in the be-yakіy іnshіy pіdoblastі), regular (i.e., the number of points, divided by the same intervals in the entire region), in the pink area vipadkovy, cluster (like the points of choice in the typographic group).

Points of roses can be described as many points at the boundaries of subdomains. Often analyzed are the local blues of the middle pairs of points. The calculation of this statistical indicator includes the designation of the average distance to the nearest sudan point of the average of all possible pairs of nearest points. This method allows you to evaluate the world of the expansion of the points in the distribution.

Rozpodіl linіy is also estimated for thick. Call for counting for the alignment of different geographical areas, for example, for the density of hydrographic lines. Lines can also be judged for their proximity and possible lines. Inshimi important characteristicsє orientation, straightening and engagement.

Analysis of subdivision of polygons similar to the analysis of subdivision of points, however, when estimating the width, it is not the number of polygons per unit area that is determined, but the part of the area that occupies the polygon.

geographic information software graphic

LECTURE 6. SURFACE MODELING

6.1 Surface digital model

The basis for the presentation of data about the earth's surface and digital terrain models.

Surface - Entire objects, as a rule, represent Z-values ​​divided by area, indicated by X and Y coordinates.

Digital terrain models (DEMs) are drawn from the computer representation of the earth's surface.

DEM - ssіb digital data to the relief of the earth's surface

Pobudova DEM uses a simple form of representation of external data (a set of coordinates points X, Y, Z) and a method of its structural description, which allows you to inspect the surface with a path of interpolation or approximation of external data.

.2 Dzherela danich for CMR molding

External data for forming DEM can be taken from maps - digitizing contour lines, stereopairs of signs, as well as as a result of geodetic scaling or laser scanning of mass. The largest expansion is the first method, because The choice of stereopairs znіmkіv vіdrіznyаєє trudomіstkіstyu and require specific software, but at the same time allows you to secure the bazhan world of the detail of the manifestation of the earth's surface. Laser scanning is a promising modern method, although expensive to finish.

6.3 Interpolations

Pobudov's DEM is based on the song structure of the data, and exit points can be differently distributed in space. The selection of data can be set behind the points of a regular grid, structural lines of the relief, or chaotically. The first data for the help of quiet chi іnshih operations produce up to one of the largest structures in the GIC for surface representation: GRID, TIN or TGRID. (Triangulated Irregular Network) - an irregular triangulation mesh, a triangular system that does not overlap. The vertices of the tricutniks are the outgoing reference points. The relief of this view is a richly faceted surface, the skin face of which is described either by a linear function (polyhedral model), or by a polynomial surface, the coefficients of which are assigned to the values ​​​​at the tops of the faces of trikutniks. To improve the surface model, it is necessary to pair points with edges in a simple way, which is called Delaunay triangulation (Fig. 5).

Mal. 5. TIN model

Delone's triangulation in addition to the two-world expanse is formulated by the offensive rank: the system of mutual ties of tricots, which do not overlap, may have the smallest perimeter, even though the tops do not trap the middle of the one from the keel, described by the newly adopted tricots (Fig. 6).

Trikutniks, who have settled down, are as close as possible to equal-sided ones. The skin on the sides of the tricots from the protilezhnoy top is visible under the maximum kutom from the shortest possible points of the water surface. Interpolation is based on illuminated ribs.

Mal. 6. Delaunay triangulation

The main feature of the triangulation model is those who in no way change weekend data. From one side, we don’t give such a model for detailed analysis, but from the other side, the researcher knows for sure that in this model there are no pardons, such as to break the model, taken away with the selection of other methods of interpolation. Best seen method of interpolation. However, even though the triangulation method was the main one in the early versions of the larger GIS, today the models have been greatly expanded to look at the regular matrix of heights. - The model is a regular matrix of elevation values, taken from the interpolation of output data. For the skin center, the height of the matrix is ​​calculated on the basis of interpolation. As a matter of fact, the grid, rozmіri yakoї zadayutsya vіdpovіdno to vimog the accuracy of a particular task. A regular grid reflects the earth's surface, but not an image.

Mal. 7. Width of points in the GRID model

(triangulated grid) – a model that goes into each element of the TIN and GRID models. Such models may have their own advantages, for example, allow to add additional data to describe the folding forms of the relief (shaving, skelnі stepups).

Revisions to the surface are implemented with the help of the interpolation of weekend data.

Interpolation - updating the function on a given interval after the given values ​​of the terminal multiplier of points that lie within this interval.

Ninі vіdomі dozens of methods of interpolation on top, the most wide: - linear interpolation; the method of zavorotnyh zavishnye vіdstaney, krigіng; spline interpolation; trend-interpolation.

Kriging. Method of interpolation, which is based on various methods of mathematical statistics. In yoga implementation, the idea of ​​a regional change is stoked, tobto. changing, as it changes from month to month with such a visible uninterruptedness, it cannot be modeled with just one mathematical equal. On the surface, there are three independent values. Persha is a trend that characterizes the change in the surface of a song directly. Farther away, there are small differences in the wild tendencies, on the edge of small peaks and depressions, yakі є vypadkovym, but all the same, they show one with one spaciously.

Vipadkovy noise (for example, a boulder). From the skin of the three changes, it is necessary to operate okremo. The trend is assessed by the variation of mathematical alignment, as it is more likely to represent a radical change in the surface, much like a surface trend.

Mal. 8. Elements of kriging: 1 - trend, 2 - vypadkovі, ale spaciously connected with vertical colivannya, 3 - vypadkovy noise

The change in height is measured according to the variogram, where on the horizontal axis it is added between the winds, and on the vertical axis - on the dispersion. Napіvdispersion is defined as half of the variance between the values ​​of the height of the output points and the height of the suture points. Let's draw the curve of the best approach through the data points. The variance at any moment reaches the maximum and becomes constant (the boundary radius of the correlation appears).

Method of return calls. The whole method of foundations is based on allowances, so that the closer one to one the exit points are, the closer their values ​​are. For an accurate description of the topography, a set of points that will be used for interpolation, it is necessary to choose in the vicinity of the designated point, the stink shards may have the greatest impact on the height. Tse reach so. The maximum radius is entered according to the search or the number of points closest to the cob (designated) point on the line. Then the value of the height in the skin vibration point is set to the value that is calculated in the fallage from the square of the distance to the point that is indicated. It can be reached, so that the nearest points made a larger deposit at the designated height, which is interpolated, equal to the greater distant points.

Trend Interpolation . In some cases of the past, there are high-profile trends on the surface, which are characterized by a surface trend.

In a similar way to the method of turning points on the surface of the trend, points are collected at the boundaries of a given area. In the boundaries of the skin surroundings, there will be the surface of the best approximation based on mathematical alignments, such as polynomials and splines.

The top of the trend can be flat, showing the overall trend with a fold. The type of leveling, which is victorious, or the steps of the polynomial determine the amount of sagging of the surface. For example, the surface of the trend of the first order is seen as a flat, which overflows the entire surface under a kind of cut. If a surface can have one wig, such a surface is called a trend surface of a different order.

Spline interpolation. The ability to describe folding surfaces for additional polynomials of low steps is due to the fact that with spline interpolation, the entire territory is divided into small plots that do not overlap. Approximation by polynomials works fine for a skin case. Sound vicorist polynomial of the third degree - cubic spline. Then, there will be a big function of “gluing” to the whole region, from the heads of the minds of the safety of the borders of the detainees and the safety of the first and other private worse ones, tobto. ensure the smoothness of gluing polynomials.

Smoothing with spline functions is especially convenient when modeling surfaces, complicated by disparate damage, and allows the creation of a type of edge effects.

LECTURE 7. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING DIGITAL RELIEF MODELS

7.1 Main processes

The main processes to induce the DEM behind the maps are:

) Converting external maps to raster images, tobto. scanning. When scanwannі, it is important to Vibіr Rydnilation, Zdatnosti Obidowan Sobotnia, Zdatnіrno Temoka Ridge Ridge Zdatnіst Vimaga "Great Snovyagiv Pam'yatі for Zeriganya Vikhimyno-іnformazії," in the same time, Dozvil is concerned about the challenge, shamefully acquisition of the zooms of the name of the CMR.

) Installation of raster fragments. Installation or "stitching" - tse stikuvannya kіlkoh sovіlnoї sovіlnoї form in one so, schob interі mіzh vihіdnimi izobrazhennyami bul nepomіtnі. Under the hour of installation, geo-referencing of raster data is required. The GIS has different modules for the accomplishment of this task.

) Vectorization of a raster image. Vectorization or horizontal digitalization can be done in manual, automatic and automatic modes. For other GIS, there are different modules that can be implemented in automatic modes, for example Mar Edit.

) Molding CMR. DEM is created on the basis of interpolation methods and can be presented in different formats.

) Visualization of results. DEM provides visualization of information about surfaces in various forms

.2 We can improve the accuracy of processes

In the wildest view, one can say that the more exit points, the more accurate the interpolation will be, and the greater the flexibility, the model of the surface is adequately rendered to the earth's surface. However, іsnuє between the number of points (discreteness), oskіlki for whether or not the surface of the zayva number of points sound does not improve the exact quality of the result, but it’s better to calculate the data for that hour. In some cases, superfluous data in some areas can lead to uneven data on the surface and, therefore, unequal accuracy. In other words, the greater number of dots does not affect the accuracy.

.3 DEM wiki

Digital relief models (DEMs) are important for the development of a whole range of applied environmental projects. For the forecasting of supra-extreme situations, for example, punishments, assessments of the degree of change in landscapes, etc. I have chosen points to look around and others. For the fermentation of the CMR, there are different forms of vicory.

LECTURE 8

8.1 Electronic maps and atlases

Visualization(graphic rendering, visualization) - generation of images, including cartographic and other graphics on outbuildings, displayed (more importantly on the monitor) based on the transformation of digital data for additional special algorithms.

The most compact way of presenting geographic information is the maps.

An electronic map (EC) is a cartographic image that is displayed on a monitor, based on digital maps or GIS databases.

Electronic Atlas (EA) is a visualization system in the form of electronic maps, an electronic cartographic TV, functionally similar to an electronic map. They are supported by software-based types of cartographic browsers, which provide frame-by-frame viewing of raster images of maps, cartographic visualizers, floor cartography systems. Krim cartographic images and legends of the electronic atlases include great textual comments, tabular data, and multimedia electronic atlases - animation, video sequences and sound support.

Tables and graphs that include various characteristics of objects (attributes) or their characteristics can be distinguished as independent or supplementary to other visualization tools.

Animations stop showing dynamic processes, tobto. the last display of painted static images (frames), the result creates the illusion of an uninterrupted image change.

8.2 Cartographic methods for displaying results in data analysis

To display the results of the analysis of GIS data, a number of methods have been implemented, such as to stop when creating thematic maps.

The method of dimensional symbols (icons) - analysis of the characteristics of objects in the form of special symbols, the analysis of which conveys a large number of information, and the form of that color - the same information.

The method of the yakіsny аbo (kіlkіsny background) - in this way the data are grouped with close meanings and the groups are given songs of color, types of symbols or lines.

The point method is a figurative way - an impersonal point of the same rozmіru, dermal for some reason the meaning of a cult indicator.

Parts and circles of localization by diagrams - allow you to display the spіvvіdnennia of a number of characteristics, with which diagrams can be geographically attached (for example, at the point of placement of the post, a warning will show the spіvvіdnennia of the wandering speeches).

The method of isolation is one of the widely expanded methods of displaying various indications. Z їх additionally form izogіps maps (topographic and hypsometric), maps of isotherms, іsobar, іzokorelatіv and іn. ta in.)

In this case, two groups of isolations are distinguished: true isolations (characterize the uninterrupted change of any indicator, horizontal lines can be seen before them) and pseudo-isolations, which reflect data, which may be a statistical nature (for example, discrete values ​​of the wikipedia). For the presentation of the isolation of different image-creating patterns: lines of different types, comrade and color, shading the color of the background (or shading) between the isolins.

.3 Trivial visualization

Trivial image surface (3D-surface) - a set of digital volumetric representation of the surface of the visually rotten diagrams, with which different types of projections can be rotated, with which the image can be rotated and hacked, a simple graphical interface.

Raster images can be generated for rendering the relief behind the DEM.

Raster surface (image) - is formed according to the Grid-model, with which skin pixel a value is assigned, proportional to the height of the grid's commissure.

Dark relief (analytical relief) - raster rendering of the DEM, when molding such, cream height of the skin of the Grid-model, the illumination of the scales is protected.

Implemented the ability to use 3D - on top of other thematic balls. To achieve realism in the image of objects, 3D surfaces are combined with cartographic or orthographic images.

The virtual model of space (VMM) is a model of space, which provides information about the relief of the earth's surface, spectral clarity and objects, spreading on this territory, is recognized for interactive visualization. HMM allows you to ensure the effect of presence on the scene, it can be displayed in a static scene (3D-view) or the mode of simulating a plane over the scene, if the poster is located at the point of given coordinates.

LECTURE 9. STAGES AND RULES OF GIS DESIGN

GIS scheduling for different projects, for different organization charts and for different powers, zooming for variance comes up to the GIS design process.

There are five main stages in the process of designing a GIS.

Analysis of the system of praise solution. The process begins with the appointment of all types of decisions that require any necessary information. Mayut buti protect the needs of the skin and the functional sphere.

Analysis of informational powers. It is determined which type of information is necessary for taking a skin decision.

Aggregation solution, tobto. aggregation task, in which for decision making, one and the same information is needed, which significantly overlaps.

Designing the process of processing information. At this stage, a real system for collecting, storing, transmitting and modifying information is being developed. Guilty buti insured the ability of the staff to obtain the calculation of the technical equipment.

Design and control over the system. The most important stage is the creation of that installation of the system. The practicality of the system is assessed from different positions, for consumption it is necessary to adjust the cost. Whether the system is not enough for the mother, and that її it is necessary to work with a gnuchka and attached.

Geoinformation technologies call for automating a lot of labor-intensive operations, which used to be great temporal, energetic, psychological and other kinds of people. However, different stages of a technological lance are subject to greater or lesser automation, which can be significantly delayed in the correct setting of weekend tasks.

Nasampered, tse formularyuvannya could up to vikoristovuvanih іnformatsiyіy prodіvіv i vyhіdnih materialiіv, vіdіvіnіh v sultіstі oprobki. Here you can see the help of other maps, tables, lists, documents; just to search for documents. As a result, a document can be created with a mental title “A comprehensive list of input data”.

The offensive krok is the designation of priorities, the callousness of the creation and the main parameters (territorial cooling, functional cooling and commitment of data) of the creation system. Dali install vimogi up to the date of raising the maximum possibilities of their zastosuvannya.

LECTURE 10. CONCEPT OF GIS AND VMOGA

.1 See GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS) - the whole system for managing geographic information, analysis and visualization. Geographical information is presented as a series of sets of geographic data, as a model of a geographic middle ground in seemingly simple data structures. GIS includes sets of tools for work with geographic data.

Geographical information system for maintaining a sprinkling of views for work with geographic information:

Type of Geodata Base: GIS - a large data base to cover datasets, to represent geographic information in the context of a global GIS data model (vector objects, raster, topology, meshes)

Geovisualization type: GIS - the price of a set of intelligent maps of those other types that show the expanses of objects and blue water between objects on the earth's surface. They can be called up to see different cards, and they can win as "into the data base" for support, analysis and editing of information.

View Geodata: GIS - set of tools for the creation of new sets of geographic data from the main sets of data. Spatial data processing functions (geoprocessing) extract information from the main data sets, save analytical functions to them, and save the removed results in new data sets.

The ESRI ArcGIS software has three types of GIS represented by a catalog (GIS as a collection of geodata sets), a map (GIS as an intelligent cartographic view) and a set of tools (GIS as a collection of tools for processing spatial data). All the stinks are unfamiliar warehousing provnotsіnnoї GIS and more or less the world wins at all GIS-additions.

Mal. 1. Three types of GIS

.2 View of the geodatabase

GIS - a specific type of data base about the present world - geographic data base (geodata base). At the heart of GIS lies a structured data base, which describes the world in a geographical aspect.

Let's take a quick look at some of the key principles and important understanding of geodatabases.

.2.1 Geographical distribution

Creating the design of the GIS geodatabase, the coristuvachi determine how different expanses of objects appear to be. For example, land plots sound like polygons, streets - like central lines, sverdloviny - like dots, and so on. Qi objects are grouped by the class of objects, in some skins they have a single geographical manifestation.

The skin of the collection of data from the GIS gives a wide range of information about any aspect of the necessary world, including:

· Arranged sets of vector objects (set points, lines and polygons)

· Set raster data, such as digital models of relief or images

· Open spaces

· Topography of mass and other surfaces

· Data collection of geodetic surveys

Other types of data, such as addresses, name the place, cartographic information

LECTURE 11. GIS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

.1

When managing GIS-information, rich concepts and characteristics of the standard architecture of information technologies are developed, which are well practiced in a centralized corporate computer environment. For example, GIS datasets can be stored in relational databases as well as other corporate data. For the operation of data, like in the database management system (DBMS), the current logic of the interaction of additives is used. Similar to other corporate information systems, the work of which is based on transactions, GIS is widely used to constantly change and update geographic data bases. Tim is no less, GIS technology has few important features.

.2 Data GIS complex

GIS-data, as a rule, may have a great scope and include a great number of great elements. For example, a simple request to the data base for filling in a large commercial form to find a few rows of data, then, as a card creation, it is necessary to request hundreds of data from the data base and create thousands of records. In addition, the use of vector or raster graphic information can become a lot of megabytes. Krіm ts'ogo, GIS-danim pritamannі folding vіdnosinі that structures, such as transport facilities, topography of the territory and topology.

11.3 Compilation of GIS data by a non-trivial specialized process

In order to encourage that graphical data sets, the GIS will need to do some editing. And in order to improve the integrity and behavior of geographic vector objects and rasters, it is necessary to process them on the basis of special geographic rules and commands. Therefore, the compilation of data from the GIS will require hundreds of vitrates. This is one of the reasons that spur the coristuvachiv to sleepy work with data sets.

.4 GIS - transactional system

Like other systems for managing data bases, the GIS data base constantly updates various data. Therefore, the GIS data base, as well as other data bases, can support such transactions. When tsimu koristuvachі GІS may deyakі spetsіalnі vomogi before transactions. One of the main minds is the possibility of supporting long-term transactions.

In case of rich vipadkah, the renewal of the basis of data is carried out in stages. For example, for an addendum to engineering communications, the robot includes such stages as "development", "proposition", "acceptance", "reconstruction" and "building". This process is a meaningful world cyclical.

The technical order is put together and transferred to the engineer, then step by step it is modified in the world of implementation of the next few steps, and, nareshti, all changes are turned back to the corporate data base.

The working process of updating and transferring data can take three days or months. However, the data base of the GIS is still guilty of being left with an accessible version of the global GIS database. Also apply working processes for data management at GIS:

Autonomous editing: some coristuvachs need the ability to "encrypt" fragments in the GIS data base and their replication (transfer) in another place in an independent, okrem system. For example, in order to carry out editing in the minds of the current data, you need to take some of the data with you, carry out the editing and updating at the post office, and then send the changes made to the main data base.

Expanded geographic databases:

The regional data base can be a private copy of a general "shmatka" of the main data base of the corporate GIS. Qi of the data bases are due to periodically synchronize for the exchange of the changes made to the skin

.5 Replication with indirect (non-hard) link

Replication with a non-hard link at the boundaries of the DBMS. Often, authors want to synchronize the context of GIS data between dekilcom with copies of data bases, which are called replicas, if local data bases are updated in the skin area. Some people want to transfer the update from the skin replica of the data base to other ones and synchronize them. With which DBMS can be different (for example, SQL Server™, Oracle ® and IBM ® DB2 ®).

12. GIS - DIVISION INFORMATION SYSTEM

.1

Most geographic information systems have data versions and tables from different organizations. The skin organization expands more and less part, and not all the information on its own GIS. Ring out if you want the children’s balls of data to come from the outer dzherel. The demand for data is an incentive for those who are interested in acquiring new data as effective as possible swedish ways, including, buying parts of the databases for their GIS in other GIS-coders. In such a rank, the management of the tributes of the GIS is made up of koristuvachs.

.2 Possibilities of mutual modality

The importance of GIS has been expanded on the basis of wide opportunities for interoperability between GIS-organizations and systems. Spіvpratsya that spіlna of the robot koristuvachіv is also important for GIS.

GIS-corists in their robots have long been spying on mutual vigilance in order to exchange money for that splendid victoria. Real fermentation of the fundamental demand is without interruption in the sphere of the creation of GIS standards. Appeal to the Galuze standards and to the ignominious principles of GIS is critically important for the successful development of that wide application of technology. GIS can support the most important standards and the possibility of adaptation with the advent of new standards.

12.3 GIS-measures

A lot of geographic sets of data can be compiled and managed as a global information resource and well-written. Until then, the GIS hackers are wondering how to secure the exchange of popular data sets via the Web.

Key web-sites, as they are called portals of GIS catalogues, give the opportunity to koristuvachs as to publish their own information, as well as to find geographic information available to the public. As a result of the GIS-systems, the greater world is connected to the All-World's web and takes away new possibilities for the exchange of information.

The concept has penetrated the minds of people in the last decade and has known such concepts as the National Spacious Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and the Global Spacious Data Infrastructure (GSDI). These concepts are constantly developing and step by step are being promoted, and not only on the national and global levels, but also on the level of districts and municipal institutions. In a more generalized way, the concept is included to the understanding of the Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI, Spatial Data Infrastructure).

GIS-merezha is, in fact, one of the methods for implementing the principles of SDI. Vaughn will unite impersonal koristuvachіv sites, spriyaє publications, search for that common source of geographic information for the assistance of the World Wide Web.

Geographical knowledge on the back of the head is divided and weakly integrated. All the necessary information is rarely stored in an opaque copy of the data base from the data schema. Koristuvach GIS interchange one by one with the method of taking away the daily parts of the GIS data that are obvious to them. For the help of the GIS-merezh, it is easier for koristuvs to establish contacts and exchange the accumulated geographical knowledge.

The GIS-merezhі warehouse includes three main building blocks:

· Metadata catalog portals, de-coristuvachs can search and find GIS-information appropriately up to their needs.

· GIS-universities that compile and publish sets of GIS-information

· Koristuvachі GІS, yakі to conduct a search, viyavlyayut, zvertayutsya and vikoristovuyut published data and services

12.4 Catalogs of GIS-portals

An important component of the GIS-merezhі is the catalog of the GIS-portal, which is a systematized register of various data storage and information sets. Part of the GIS-koristuvachіv dіє like data organizers, they compile and publish their data sets for sleeping victoria in different organizations. They register their information sets with the catalog portal. Conducting searches for this catalogue, others can find out what information they need and go back to them.

GIS-catalogue portal - this is a Web-site, where GIS-decoders can search and know the required GIS-information. Possibility, scho hopes, to lie in the complex of proponated GIS-data services, cartographic services and metadata services. Periodically, the site portal of the GIS-catalog can update the catalogs of related sites-participants from them with the method of publishing and updating one central GIS-catalog. In this way, the GIS-catalog can be sent to the dzherel danikh, which is the same on the same, and on other sites. It is hoped that a series of such catalog nodes will be created, and on their basis a joint network will be formed - the infrastructure of spacious data.

GIS-data and services are documented by looking at catalog records in the GIS-portal, for which you can search for candidates for selection in various GIS-additions.

One of the applications for the GIS-catalog portal is the US portal (Geospatial One-Stop, div. www.geodata.gov). This portal is to allow the governing bodies of the Russian Empire and the broader circle to be simpler, faster and with smaller windows to access geographic information.

LECTURE 13

Wimogi up to GIS inject into the process of development and implementation of GIS software security. Similar to other information technologies, GIS can ensure the simplicity of the implementation of additives, created on the same basis for the support of working processes, that business could be such an organization. It is within reach of the framework of the underlying software platform that supports different types collection of geographic data, development of instrumental data management tools, their editing, analysis and visualization.

In this context, the software security of GIS is seen by the larger world as an IT infrastructure, which is how large, modern investments are formed on richly coristuvachi systems. The GIS platform can give you all the possibilities, the necessary support for this wide beam.

Before them one can see:

Geographical database for the collection and management of all geographic objects

Based on the Web for a separate management of geographic information and the whole list

Desktop and server software for:

1. - compilation of data,

2. - information requests,

Spacious analysis and geodata processing,

4. - creation of cartographic products,

Visualization and rendering of raster images,

6. - management of GIS data;

modular software components(engines - engines) for the implementation of GIS-logic in other add-ons and special-purpose core programs;

Geographical information services for bagator and centralized GIS-systems.

LECTURE 14

In Ukraine, there are vicorists as professional peers, as well as specializations. Software products are molded according to the modular principle. Sounds to see the basic module and extension modules (or add-ons). The base module has the functions that implement the main operations of the GIS, including the software support for the input and output, export and import of data as well. It should be noted that the software products of various firms can be richly sleepy, the shards of noisemakers are similar to each other and other technological developments. At present, there are about 20 good GIS-packages on the market, which can be upgraded to fully functional ones.

Characterizing the power of the fully functional GIS, one can name their main figures. All systems are running on the Windows platform. Only some deacons make versions of them, as they practice under the care of others operating systems("Horizon" - MS DOS, Unix, Linux, MC BC, Free BSD, Solaris, INTROS; PARK - MS DOS; Arc GIS Arc Info Solaris, Digital Unix, AIX etc.;

All systems support the exchange of space information (export and import) with GIS and CAD software through the main exchange formats.

More similar and possible in terms of work with attributive information. Most systems provide the work with the main DBMS through ODBC, BDE drivers. For the first time in the middle of promoting or defeating DBMS, Oracle is worth it.

In most cases, modern fully functional HIS allow expanding their capabilities. The main way to expand the possibilities is to program with movs high level(MS Visual Basic, Microsoft Visual C++, Borland Delphy, Borland C++ Builder) with DLL and OCX library connections (ActiveX). Zvichayno є i vinyatki. Such systems, like MapInfo Professional, use Map Basic, and AricView GIS systems use Avenue.

The most advanced foreign systems for various reasons are ArcView GIS, MapInfo Professioal, MicroStation/J. A similar list of vital systems is distinguished by GeoGraph, Panorama (Map 2000), PARK, GeoLink.

Briefly characterize the widest range of software products, indicative of the features of this area of ​​congestion.

ArcGIS ArcInfo(Sold by ESRI, USA) . Fully functional GIS, which consists of two independently installed software packages - ArcInfo Workstation and ArcInfo Desktop. The first consists of three basic modules: ArcMap - displaying, editing and analyzing data, ArcCatalog - access to data and managing them, ArcToolbox - a tool for extended spatial analysis by projections and data conversion. Additional modules will ensure the success of upcoming tasks:

Arc COGO - set of tools and functions for work with geodetic data;

Arc GRID - can be difficult to collect data for analysis and control without interruption by numeric and similar signs that appear in regular models, as well as modeling of folding processes;

ARC TIN - assignments for modeling topographic surfaces;

Arc NETWORK - for modeling and analysis of topologically connected objects in looking at open spaces, assessment and management of resources, distributed across boundaries, and processes in such dimensions. ensuring the creation of geoinformation systems, the creation and management of land, forest, geological and other cadastres, the design of transport facilities, the assessment of natural resources

ArcGIS ArcView(Rozrobnik firm ESRI, USA). Nastіlna GІS, as nadaє koristuvachevi zabobi selection and review of various geodata, their editing, analysis and visnovka (business, science, education, management, sociology, demography, ecology, transport, local government).

All ArcGis products can be engineered with additional modules to accomplish specialized spatial analysis tasks:

ArcGIS Spatial Analyst - software module for robots with raster surfaces. Allows you to analyze the characteristics of the surface, as well as to interpolate a wide range of data for visualization and analysis of processes;

ArcGis 3D Analyst - a program for creation, visualization and analysis of trivial objects and surfaces;

ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst - a new module for surface interpolation based on statistical analysis of spatially distributed data;

ArcView supports relational DBMS, can expand business graphics (review form, tabular form, diagram form, layout layout), transfer the creation of professionally designed cartographic information and the development of power addenda.

MapInfo Professional(Produced by MapInfo Corp. USA), one of the most extensive floor GIS in Russia. MapInfo is specially designed for the processing and analysis of information, which can be addressable or open-source binding.

MapInfo implements:

search for geographic objects;

geometrical functions: rozrahunki area, dozhin, perimeters, obsyagiv, laying between surfaces;

pobudova buffer zones on the basis of any object or group of objects;

expanded the language of SQL request, requests are based on virases, add data, show available fields, allow data to work, combine with a number of tables and geographic data.

computer design and preparation before the appearance of cartographic documents.

Geographer(Research to the Center for Information Research of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia). It is possible to create electronic thematic atlases and compositions of cards on the basis of balls of digital cards and tables of attributive data associated with them. The main possibilities of the Geographer are as follows:

the creation of spacious objects in visual cosmetic balls from a table of attributive data attached to them;

subsystem for managing attributive data, including the arrival of a table, editing, selection, sorting, asking for an eye, etc.

electronic thematic cartography and int.

Panorama (Russia) Pobudova and processing of digital and electronic maps, maintenance of cartographic and attributive databases.

Okremo next to see professional rich-functional instrumental GIS, yakі ensure the possibility of direct processing of these remote sensing data. Before them one can see ERDAS IMAGINE, ERMapper and others.

ER Mapper(ER Mapper development) Collection of great photogrammetric information, thematic cartography (geophysics, natural resources, forestry). Accuracy, other cards, visualization of a trivial image, a library of algorithms.

ERDAS IMAGINE(Leica development) - a software package, developed specifically for processing and analyzing data from remote sensing, providing a new set of tools for analyzing data from any number of results in various forms - from other cards to trivi- mer models. ERDAS IMAGINE is inspired by the modular principle in the form of basic kits - IMAGINE Essential, IMAGINE Advantage and IMAGINE Professional.

ERDAS IMAGINE implements:

wide possibilities for visualization and import of data (supporting over 100 formats);

geometric correction;

improve the transformation and GIS-analysis;

decryption of signs;

tools for processing images and prompting algorithms for calculating expanses;

Geoinformation systems (GIS) - systems for collecting, storing, processing, accessing, analyzing, interpreting and graphic visualization of space data. GIS is the basis of geoinformation technologies (GIS-technologies), that is. information technologies of processing and submission of spaciously distributed information.

GIS-technologies are a hard tool for robotic and scientific submission of information. Vikoristovuyuchi peredovі mozhlivostі systems upravlіnnya bases danih (DBMS), being unіkalnimi editors rastrovoї that vektornoї grafіki that volodіyuchi nayshirshim іnstrumentarієm to conduct analіtichnih operatsіy, GІS zarekomenduvali currently yak efektivnosti zasіb virіshennya zavdan at the Branch kartografії, geologії, munіtsipalnogo upravlіnnya, zemleustroyu, ekologії, transport, craftsmanship, the agricultural and forest state.

For deyakim otsіnkami close 80% of usієї іnformatsiї, pov'yazanoї z diyalnіstyu people, maє expanse pri'yazku. For example, the work of the housing and communal services provides information about the heating of the future, the passage of heating mains, power transmission lines, etc., as may be presented in the picture. Supporting documentation (passports of objects, photographs, protocols), although they are not displayed directly on the card, may be interrelated with the objects of the card, so that there may be an open connection. As a result, GIS-technologies are becoming more and more information support, being a handy tool for accomplishing a wealth of practical, scientific and basic tasks.

Software products that can expand the collection of tools for working with space information.

Different types of geoinformation systems, vіdminnіstyu є nadannya іnformatsії through Internet/Intranet

Class of software for mobile devices, recognized for access, processing, analysis and graphic visualization of space data

Geoinformation systems, recognized for the highest order of bodies in the structure of sovereign power.

The geo-information system was insured on a rich basis, it was implemented to automate the business processes of the organization. Tsey view geoinformation systems of assignments for the analysis and visualization of space data and related information.